



Class J1:k_ J_£ 

Book 

— " ' - <: 

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CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES 

i 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON 



THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE 
OLD TESTAMENT 



BY 

WILLIAM R. HARPER 



Constructive Studies 



IN 



THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 



IN THE 



OLD TESTAMENT 



AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY 



FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES 



BY / 

WILLIAM R. HARPER 

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago* 



REVISED EDITION 



CHICAGO 

Gbe TUnfversttE ot Cbfca^o press 

1902 






THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Comes Received 

JAN. 9 1902 

Copyright entry 

CLASS O^XXa No. 

COPY BL 



Copyright igo2 
By William R. Harper 



. , , < ( i 

( c < < 

, I 



PREFACE. 

This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is intended 
to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the questions relating to 
the subject from an historical point of view. The materials for a preliminary 
study of the various topics are gathered together, and arranged with sugges- 
tions as to order and method of procedure. 

It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more 
mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and theo- 
logical students have been kept especially in mind. 

The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken as a 
basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of history that 
these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each special topic con- 
nected with the general subject of the Priestly Element furnishes a beautiful 
illustration of the growth and development of Israelitish and Jewish thought 
under the controlling influence of a conception of God which became more 
and more pure with the advancing .centuries. 

Three methods of treatment have been employed, each being deemed 
best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a systematic statement of 
the scope of the Priestly Element ; in Chapters II-IV, an historical statement 
covering in barest outline the story of the Priestly Element as a whole, in its 
progress and development ; in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative 
examination (indicated by questions and suggestions based upon the material 
presented) of the more important special factors which, taken together, 
constitute the Priestly Element. 

Some effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the more acces- 
sible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreciation of the 
assistance rendered me by my colleague, Dr. John M. P. Smith, especially in 
the arrangement and verification of the scriptural references, and the refer- 
ences to the literature on the various topics. For obvious reasons the latter 
have been arranged chronologically, the literature in languages other than 
English being placed by itself. 

A second series of studies, designed to supplement and complete the 
present work, is in process of preparation. In these it is proposed to take up 
(i) the priestly literature of the Old Testament, viz., the priestly histories, the 
codes of legislation, the Psalms ; (2) the priestly ideas as a whole ; and (3) the 
relation of the Priestly Element to the work of Old Testament Prophecy and 
Wisdom. 

William R. Harper. 

December /, /go/. 



CONTENTS. 



Part I. 

THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. 
Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament I 

Part II. 

THE HISTORY OP THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

Chapter II. — The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13 
Chapter III. — The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . . 27 
Chapter IV. — The history of worship in the later Old Testament period ... 42 

Part III. 

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP. 

Chapter V. — The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara- 
tively 61 

Chapter VI. — The laws and usages concerning the place of worship, consid- 
ered comparatively 74 

Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara- 
tively 83 

Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts,, considered compara- 
tively 94 

Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti- 
tutions, considered comparatively 108 

Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered 

comparatively 119 

Chapte"r XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of 

worship, considered comparatively 131 



Paet First 



I. General Scope of the Priestly Element in the Old 
Testament. 



_ 



CHAPTER I. 

THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

§ i. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli- 
gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi- 
nence given to one or another of these elements : 

(i) Worship, or, more technically, cult, a word which Pss. 103:1 5150. 
expresses the general attitude of the individual or group 
of individuals toward an outside higher world of super- 
natural or divine existence, and includes the outward 
acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought. 

(2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut. 6:4; 

John 3 : 36. 
expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained 

by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer- 
tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana- 
tion. 

(3) Conduct, or, more technically, ethics, which includes Mic. 6:8; 
all the acts and feelings of man in so far as they are James 1:27.' 
related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and 

to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong. 

§2. Three Great Channels of Revelation are found in 
the Old Testament ; through these, separately and 
together, there has come down to us a wonderful storv 
of the interworking of God and man. These are : 

(1) The word of the prophet, including the utter- Jer. 18:18; 
ances through centuries of that unique order established 

to give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the 
"word" of God. 

(2) The counsel of the sage, including the wise say- Jer. 18:18; 
ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14. 
riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the 

books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. 

(3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18; 
the subject of consideration in this and the following 
studies. 

§3. The Place of Worship is First of All to be Noticed. 
— In ancient times because it seemed to men that certain 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Kings 14:23; 
1 Chron. 21 129; 
Exod. 19:2, 3, 12. 

Gen. 12:6; 13:18. 



Gen. 16: 13, 14. 



Gen. 31:44-54; 
Gen. 28:18-22. 



Exod. 20:24-26; 

1 Kings 7 : 48 ; 

2 Kings 16:10-15; 
Exod. 27:1-8; 

1 Kings 2:28-30. 



Josh. 4:11; 

1 Sam. 4:3-6; 

2 Sam. 6:2-17; 
Exod. 25:10-21; 
Exod. 25:22. 



2 Sam. 7: 2-6; 
Exod., chap. 26; 

Exod. 33: 7-95 
Numb. 17: 4,12,13. 



1 Kings 6:1,2,11- 

14, 37, 38; 
Ezek. 43:1-12; 
Hag. 1:4-14; 
Ezra 3: 12, 13; 

6:13-18. 



places were more favored by the gods than were others, in 
modern times because men fancy that a certain environ- 
ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the 
place has always been a subject of greatest importance. 
The place was in early days something connected with 
nature : 

(1) High places, or hills, were especially sought as 
being the abode of God. 

(2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred 
to as connected with worship. 

(3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which 
angels were thought to dwell. 

(4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places to which 
the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food 
was placed or libations of oil poured out. 

In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres- 
ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or 
spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22:41 it is to 
be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among 
other nations; cf. also Isa. 16 : 12.) 

The place was also often something of a more or less 
artificial character, as is seen in the use of — 

(5) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose 
earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still 
others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the 
refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven- 
geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac- 
rifice was laid. 

(6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain 
sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case of 
war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and 
was designated as a place of communion with God. 

(7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the 
ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa- 
tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and 
it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought 
and tradition. 

(8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization 
(the establishment of courts and the building of palaces) 
took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3 

a tent. There was (a) Solomon's temple, erected at a 
significant period of national development; (fr) the tem- 
ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an 
important part in the history of Israel's religious 
thought ; and (c) the second temple, erected with some 
disappointment, after the return from exile. 

It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:2-5; 

Ps 137 

God is sought and obtained in connection with natural 
places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places 
constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will 
be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men 
are scattered, groups living here and there, when the 
realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and 
the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and 
churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still 
another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity 
for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen 
powers. 

§ 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second 
necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the 
priest who conducted the worship. 

(1) His function was threefold : to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8; 
minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest 18:3-6*; 

1 l r 1 1 r 1 1 • ^ eVl 8 : 1-I °- 

times the need or having some such priest was felt, his 
presence being thought to be attended with peculiar 
blessing. 

(2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that Deut. 14:2; 

1 ir 1 11 r ExOd. 19:6; 

the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra 7:21, 25, 26, 

or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other 

nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit 

on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a 

hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact 

shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish 

history. 

(3) Besides the priests and prophets who served and 1 Kings 18:19-22; 
spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel's Ezek. 8:15', 16. ' 
history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to 

the service of other gods. 

§5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship 
in ancient times. 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Gen. 18: 1-8; 
i Sam. i: 3-8; 

9:23-25; 

Chron. 16:1-3. 



Ps. 51:18,19; 
Isa. 1: 11-17; 
Lev., chaps. 1-7; 

8-10; 11; 12-15; 

etc. 



Gen. 8:20; 
Lev., chaps. 4,9. 



Lev. 3:1-6; 
Judg. 20: 26. 



Gen. 35:14; 
Exod. 29: 40, 41; 
Numb. 28: 7. 

Exod. 30:1, 7-9; 
Numb. 4: 16. 



Lev., chaps. 5, 7, 

14; 
Numb. 6: 12. 



(1) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which 
the offerer and his friends participated and to which the 
deity was invited. There are frequent references to such 
sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of 
a clan, or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal 
was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par- 
ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was 
a communion of the worshiper and his god. 

(2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and 
gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. The 
prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true 
spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a 
proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The 
book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice,, 
viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal 
and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to 
prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history. 

(3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice 
were distinguished, according as each expressed a par- 
ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ; 
among these were : 

(a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning 
of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an 
offering to Jehovah. 

(&) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri- 
fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in that it 
provided for the giving of only the blood and certain 
specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being 
eaten by the sacrificial guests. 

(c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine, 
or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings. 

(a) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were 
burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was 
acceptable to Jehovah. 

(e) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur- 
pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in 
which the damage could be estimated and covered by 
compensation ; the blood of the animal was poured out 
to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest 
was the perquisite of the priests. 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5 

(/) The sin-offering, which occupied a very important Lev. 4:24-34; 

place in the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Numb., chap.V, 

15: 27. 
upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature ; 

the specifications for this part of the ritual are very com- 
plete and detailed. 

(g) The wave-offering, consisting of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17; 
r \ .r> . 1 -. Numb. 15:19-21; 

of the sacrifice that were given over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29; 

Exod. 29:27, 28. 

were waved by them before the altar as a token of the 

fact that they belonged to Jehovah, but had been given 

over by him to the priests. 

(4) Great care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24; 

29: 40; 30: 1; 
might enter into a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. 2:1, 4, 13; 

*7l 12* 23*13 

fine flour or meal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough, 

salt. Here again important conceptions were associated 

with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted 

prescribing the exact character and amount of materials 

to be used. 

§ 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for 1 Sam. 9:12, 13, 

22-24; 
these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam. 1:3, 4. 

the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con- 
nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec- 
tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising, 
as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men 
whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn 
together, and in the act of association there is worship ; 
for the more closely they are united, the nearer they may 
come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship 
him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that 
which involves communion with others as well as with 
God. 

(1) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. 23:14-17. 
the springtime, the second in the early summer, the 

third in the autumn. These correspond roughly to 
the more modern Easter, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving 
seasons. 

(2) There were also special feasts and feast days, Hos.2:u. 
which in early times seem to have been of a joyous 
character. 

(3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:2934. 
which were days of affliction rather than of joy. 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Zech. 7:3-5; 
Esther 9: 28-31. 



Gen. 24: 12 ff.; 
1 Sam. 1 :io; 8:6; 
1 Kings 8:23-53; 
Isa. 38:2, 3; 
Neh. 1 :4-ix; 2:4. 



Judg. 11:3039; 
1 Sam. 1 :n; 
Judg. 13:3-7; 
Numb. 6: 1-12. 



1 Kings 6 : 19 ; 
Exod. 28:30; 
Gen. 20:3; 28:10, 
18. 



Isa. 47:9; 
Jer. 27:9; 
Mai. 3:5; 
Dan. 2:2; 
Deut. 18:9-13. 



Gen. 4 : 21; 
Amos 5:23; 
Isa. 30:29, 32; 
Jer. 48:36; 
Numb. 10: 2; 

31:6; 
Josh. 6: 4ff ; • 
Pss. 137:2; 33:2; 
2 Sam. 16: 14; 
Exod. 15: 20; 
Pss. 149: 3; 150:4- 



(4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days, 
celebrating some great calamity. 

§ 7. Other Acts of Worship.— In connection with and 
forming a part of worship were several specific acts, 
such as — 

(1) Prayer; this was always implied in the act of 
sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of 
sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter- 
est in his clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to 
them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ; 
and also when in joy they express appreciation of some 
great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer 
for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic 
of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and 
is thoroughly typical of humanity. 

(2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in 
ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio- 
lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift; at other 
times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice 
of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite, 
it signified setting apart to the service of God. 

(3) The oracle and dream, as methods of ascertaining 
the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In 
these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not 
differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of 
whom they dwelt. 

(4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there 
were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters 
with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers; but acts 
of this kind were always forbidden. 

(5) Music and dancing were accompaniments of wor- 
ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com- 
munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm, 
sound and movement. Music has always formed a part 
of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied, 
not only festival, but worship. 

§8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us, 
perhaps, the highest product of the priest-work; for, 
although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character, 
by far the greater part is the high and holy expression 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT J 

of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com- 
munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may 
religious songs of so tender and deep a character be 
found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the 
Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These 
have been variously and quite minutely classified; but 
here reference may be limited to — 

(i) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136. 
expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his 
praises are gladly sung. 

(2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102. 
pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of 

himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty 
and danger, or restoration to divine favor. 

(3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; 116; 130. 
ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt. 

§ 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were, likewise, 
largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the 
priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was 
the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or 
sages. The priest's work included something more than 
the various elements which enter into or are connected 
with what we would today call worship. In those days 
the religious life and the secular life were the same. 
Religion and politics were the same. This means that 
it was impossible to draw a line between religious life 
and ordinary life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-12; 

, t , i<ii 1 Exod. 21:1-35; 

had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27. 

ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds, 

the building of a house. There were laws, for example, Lev. 19:9-37; 

Exod. 23 : 1-9. 

concerning the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the 
treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These 
are a few examples only, taken from the great law- 
books, Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be 
understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from 
time to time formulated, included the teachings of the 
prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work 
and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci- 
ological character there were the laws which regulated 



8 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



2 Chron. 5 : 2—7 : 2 
cf. 1 Kings, 
chap. 8. 



1 Chron 
15,16; 



18-20. 



chaps. 



2 Chron. 35:1-19 
ef. 2 Kings 
23:21-23, 



Exod. 23:18, 19; the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his 

Deut. 30:15-20; r r ° r 

Lev., chap. 21. dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc., 

etc. These more strictly come into consideration in 

connection with topics already discussed {cf. §§3, 7). 

§ 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or 

compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the 

priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel, 

as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already 

been written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared 

cf. 2 Sam. 6 : 12-19. from a wholly prophetic point of view. It was intended 
chron. chaps. to teach prophetic lessons, especially those connected 

cfX Kings, chaps. w * tn tne idea °f tne enormity of sin and its disastrous 
consequences. At a later date (about 300 B. C.) the 
priests undertook to traverse the field of sacred history, 
and in so doing used, to some extent, the same original 
sources. This priestly history is found in the books of 
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. In these books the 
thought always uppermost is that of the history of worship. 
Its purpose was to assist in establishing regular service 
in the second temple, and to kindle in the hearts of the 
people a national life and spirit, and respect for the insti- 
tutions of the national religion. The differences in matter, 
tone, and spirit between the prophetic and the priestly 
histories is easily seen by a comparison of the treatment 
which each gives to the same subject, e. g.; 

(1) The dedication of the temple. 

(2) The transfer of the ark to Jerusalem. 

(3) The accession of Solomon. 

(4) The account of the plague in David's reign. 

(5) The sin of David with Bathsheba, which is not 
mentioned in Chronicles. 

(6) The organization of the priests and Levites and 
temple officials, which is treated in full in Chronicles, and 
not mentioned in Samuel and Kings. 

It is proposed, after this general view of the work of the priests as 
a whole, to undertake to do five things in the following series of 
studies : 

(1) To trace the history of worship from the beginning to the end 
of the Old Testament times, through the early, the middle, and the 
late periods. 



1 Chron., chaps. 

28, 29; 
cf. 1 Kings 1 : 32- 

40. 

1 Chron., chap. 21; 
cf. 2 Sam., chap. 

24. 

2 Sam. 11:2-27. 

1 Chron., chaps. 
23-26. 



GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 9 

(2) To classify and note the elements of worship in the Hebrew 
Psalter, the Christian's Book of Psalms. 

(3) To analyze and present the essential points of interest in the 
histories which the priests themselves prepared, and which are found 
in the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. 

(4) To determine the great ideas which entered into and controlled 
the priest-work. 

(5) To explain as far as it may be possible (a) the purpose and 
spirit of this priest- element as it appears in its various forms in Israel- 
itish history and literature ; (b) the permanent, as distinguished from 
the transitory, elements which it contained ; (e) the contribution which 
it made to Christianity, or, in other words, its relationship to Chris- 
tianity. 



Part Second 



THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP 

II. History of Worship in the Earlier Old Testament Period. 

III. History of Worship in the Middle Old Testament Period. 

IV. History of Worship in the Later Old Testament Period. 



CHAPTER II. 

HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD. 

§ ii. Worship Alone Constituted Religion in the earliest times. It 
was later that greater and greater emphasis came to be placed on con- 
duct and belief (see § i). A ceremony or religious rite was associated 
(in the various ancient religions) with some fact, or supposed fact, or 
legend, or myth. But it was the rite which constituted the religious 
element, and not any belief concerning the origin of the rite. "It 
made no difference what the worshiper believed concerning the cere- 
mony, if only he performed it regularly and accurately." " What was 
obligatory or meritorious was the exact performance of sacred acts 
prescribed by religious traditions." It was the prophets and sages 
who introduced at the same time higher conceptions of God and 
higher conceptions of life. 

See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 17-22; Menzies, His- 
tory of Religion, pp. 6-1 3, 64 f.; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, 
PP. 52-5- 

§ 12. A Semitic Period in the Development of Worship preceded the 
earliest Hebrew worship, and formed the basis of it. It will be 
remembered that the Semitic family (1) gave to the world the two 
earliest civilizations of which we have knowledge, the Egyptian and 
the old Babylonian, and controlled the world's political history for 
forty or fifty centuries ; (2) has been mediary, not only in the field of 
commerce and between man and man, but also in that higher field of 
religion between God and man, in that they have proved to be the 
religious teachers of the world, since through them have come the 
world's three highest faiths — Judaism, Christianity, and Moham- 
medanism. 

See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 28 ff.; W. R. 
Smith, op. cit., pp. 28-83 *> C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient 
Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 22-30; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy 
and the Monuments, Vol. I, pp. 5-1 1 ; Fritz Hommel, The Civilization of the East, 
pp. 25-7. 

§ 13. The Most Ancient Form of Semitic Religion, the parent of all 
others, was that found in the old mother-home of Arabia. It was a 

13 



14 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

religion well adapted to the condition of the people, who, at that time, 
were still in clans. The Hebrews, together with the Moabites, Ammon- 
ites, and Edomites, had "their root in a state of society when there 
was no large and orderly community, but only a multitude of small 
and restless tribes; when there was no written law, but only custom ; 
and when there was no central authority to execute justice, but it 
was left to a man's fellow-clansmen to avenge his murder." In this 
time — 

(i) There was a god for each clan, and this god was thought to be a 
very remote ancestor. To leave the clan meant to leave the god. This 
clan-god was closely connected with every undertaking of the clan, 
whether of peace or war ; and his name everywhere was " Lord," 
"King," "Mighty One." 

See Menzies, History of Religion, pp. 74-6 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the 
Semites (2d ed.), pp. 35-9 ; D'Alviella, Origin and Growth of the Conception of God 
(Hibbert Lectures, 1891), pp= 204-7. 

(2) The worship of the clan-god was important, because every 
detail of life was dependent on his favor. His favor or anger was 
shown at certain spots, which thenceforward became sacred places, and 
here those who inquired of him would find him. The god could not, 
of course, be worshiped anywhere outside of the land which belonged to 
him ; and if one left that land and entered another, he must at once 
transfer his worship to the god of the new land. 

See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 160 f.; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 
53-5- 

(3) The present life played a larger part than the future life ; for, 
while the early Semites believed in the continued existence of the 
departed, they regarded them as destitute of energy, as " shades laid 
in the ground." "After death, it was held, even religion came to an 
end. A man must enjoy the society of his god in this life; after 
death he could take part in no sacrifice, and could render to God no 
thanks or service." 

See Menzies, op. cit., p. 161 ; C. G. Montefiore, op. cit, pp. 454-7 ; R. H. 
Charles, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 51-4. 

(4) This explains, in some measure, the rites of worship which 
existed in these primitive times, viz.: 

(a) The sacrifice; the man sought a sacred place (/. e., a place 
where the god was likely to be found), killed an animal, put the blood 
of the animal on a stone ; the god touched the blood, the man touched 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD I 5 

it, and this act was a renewal of the declaration that the man and the 

god were of the same blood, and that the covenant between them was 

renewed. 

See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 65-8, 162; Schultz, "The Significance of Sacri- 
fice in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV, pp. 257-61 ; 
G. S. Goodspeed, " The Atonement of Communion," Biblical World, Vol. XVII, 
pp. 96-106. 

{b) The feast or banquet; at this the god was supposed to sit with 
his people and to receive his share of the animal just slain. In late 
times, when the god was thought to live above, his share was burned 
and he received the savor or smell of the sacrifice. The feast included 
dancing, and even gross kinds of indulgence. All was joyful. Happi- 
ness, reaching even to " orgiastic ecstasy," was universal. 

See W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 253-8 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 
I, pp. 188 f. 

§14. Three Great Periods are seen in the develop- josh. 24:2,3. 
ment of this primitive Semitic worship, as it appears in 
the Old Testament history. Two opinions exist as to 
whether the writing of the Pentateuch (or five books of 
the law) was practically finished in the days of Moses, or 
in the days of Ezra. 

See Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, pp. 31-58; 
Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1897, pp. 156-62; 
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), 
pp. 82-98, 123-6, 135-59; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, 
The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 17-23. 

This question does not concern us here ; for all stu- 
dents agree that, whatever may have been the date of 
writing, the date of adoption of the laws and ceremonies 
by the masses of the people is definitely announced in 
Scripture, viz.: 

(1) The Levitical law in all its fulness and the Leviti- Neh.,chap. 8. 
cal ritual of worship were not adopted until the times of 

Ezra (440 B. C). 

(2) The Deuteronomic law, as laid down in Deuter- 2Kings22:8 — 

z 23 : 3. 

onomy, did not come into force until Josiah's time (621 
B. C). It is clear that there was 

(3) An earlier legal code and an earlier form of wor- Exod. 20:23— 
v J 23:19. 

ship which served to connect the old Semitic worship 

with the Deuteronomic. This earliest of the three 



1 6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

periods is first to be considered and presents itself in 
three different stages, viz.: 
Gen. 47:1-10. (#) The primitive Hebrew stage — that which existed 

during the days of the patriarchs, and while Israel was 
still a nomadic people, wandering from place to place. 

judg. 1:1-4; (b) The Canaanitish stage — that in which the primi- 

2:11-19- . . . , , ■■ ,. 

tive form came into contact with the corrupt and licen- 
tious practices of the Canaanitish religion; it was at this 
time that Israel was settling down to an agricultural life. 

Hos. 11:1-4; (e) The prophetic stage — that in which the prophets 

Amosa'xo-'xa; made heroic struggle against the corruption and idola- 
Isa. 2 : 6-9. 

try of Israel, by pointing out a truer conception of God, 

the adoption of which affected both the conduct and the 

worship of the nation. 

Josh. 24:3-7. % 1 5- In the Primitive Stage of the Early Period the 

Worship was, of course, only slightly different from that 
common Semitic worship described above. The people 
were still wandering about. Leaders had been raised up 
by God whose work would in time lead the people 
higher and higher toward a proper conception of 
God and of his worship. But, as the Old Testament 
so clearly shows, the people hung back; refused to 
follow the divinely appointed leaders ; and only after 
fifteen hundred years of instruction finally acknowledged 
Jehovah to be the only God. The facts concerning 
worship are these : 

Gen. 12:6-8; (1) The place selected for worship by the patriarchs 

26:24!;' was the place in which they pitched their tent; e. g., 

32: 22-32; 

35:14*. Abraham worshiped at Shechem, and near Bethel; Jacob 

at Beersheba, and at Peniel, and at Bethel. Trees, 

springs, and stones are also mentioned. 
Gen. 31:46. The altar must have been something very simple, 

consisting only of stones gathered together, or of earth 

thrown up. 
Gen. 31 : 19, 34 f. Teraphim, or household gods, were found in Jacob's 

family. There seems not to have been an ark or chest 

in use. 
Gen. 22:13; 27:25; (2) The priest was the leader, whoever he may have 

Exod. 24:4-8. been, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or Moses. There was no 

class of priests. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD \J 

(3) The sacrifice was a family meal, or a clan meal, i. e., Gen. 26:28-30; 

Gen. 8 : 20, 21 ; 
a banquet. It consisted of flesh, specially prepared ; its Gen. 18:1-8. 

savor was smelled by Jehovah ; it was eaten by repre- 
sentatives of the deity. 

(4) The times were irregular ; sacrifice was offered at Cf. references 

. mi r 11 c given above. 

anytime, lhere is no reference to the observance of 

dates marked by the moon, or of the sabbath. 

(5) Other acts of worship are seen in — 

(a) The prayer of Abraham for the deliverance of Gen. 18:23-33; 

24: 12 ff. ; 32 :9- 

Lot, of Abraham's servant for guidance in the pursuit of 12. 
his mission, and of Jacob for deliverance from Esau. 

(b) The vow of Abraham paid to Melchizedek ; and Gen. 14:18-24; 

28 : 20-22. 

that of Jacob made on his journey to Laban, the Syrian. 

(c) The dreams of the patriarchs, which as methods Gen. 15:12-21; 

28 : 10-18 ; 35 : 9- 

of receiving communications from the deity are to be 13; 37:5-10. 
classed with acts of worship. 

(d) The cup of divination of Joseph, and the teraphim Gen. 44:1-5. 
(see p. 16). 

(6) Songs and hymns, laws, and history -writing had Gen. 49:1-26; 

i r 1 1 ii 11 Exod. 15: 1-18; 

not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod. 20:1-17. 

not come down to us in the form which existed in these 

early days. The present literary form of pieces like 

the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red 

Sea," and the " Decalogue" comes from a time later 

than the settlement in Canaan. 

§ 16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the Judg. 2:1-5. 
worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the 
change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to 
contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were 
peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the 
Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to 
see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing 
justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible 
honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his 
neighbors, the Canaanites. Consequently much that 
was Canaanitish was now appropriated. 

(1) Places and representatives; here arise — 

(a) The high places, all over the land, which soon Judg. 6 : 25-32 ; 

1 r i i- x Sam. 1 : 3. 

became centers of corruption and licentiousness. 



1 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

judg. 3:7; 6:25, (b) The pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which 

30; 9:6; 10:6. , 

were to be found at the high places and were taken over into 

the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places. 

judg. 20:27 f.; (c) The ark or chest, which was thought to represent 

1 Sam. 4:3ft. v J & r 

the deity, and which the people carried with them when 

they went to battle, as in Eli's days. 

Cf. Exod. 32:8, (d) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was 

19-24; ' " 

Numb. 2i:8f.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation of 

deity. 

1 Sam. 14:41; 00 The Urim and Thummim, which were carried in a 

pocket of the priestly ephod, were in use as a means of 

discovering the divine will with reference to any course 

of action. 

judg. 17:7; (2) The priest was sometimes a professional, bearing 

Judg. 18:3-5, 19, v ' r v e 

20; the name Levite, and cultivated a certain professional 

Judg. 6: 19513:19; 

17:5; 6:25-27; tone by which he was recognized as a Levite. He 
11:31, 39 

seems to have been more acceptable than the patriarch 

•or oldest son, who in the past had performed priestly duties. 
The priest went about wherever he could find employ- 
ment. But the old family priesthood still continued, and 
sacrifice was not restricted to any class of priests. 

Judg. 6:19-21,26- (?) Sacrifice was the same as before, an act of com- 

28; 13:16-23; \oj j > 

1 Sam. 1:3-5,9, munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to 



13-15- 



have occupied a more prominent place. 



1 Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons. — Now there arose feasts of 

18, 24, 27, 29; y ^' 

judg. 9:27521 :ig; the moon ; the sabbath was also observed, probably as a 
i Sam. 1:3, 13. L J 

time of rejoicing; there were also the Feasts of Harvest 

and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul- 
tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for 
drunkenness and licentiousness. 

(s) Other acts. — We read of the — 
Judg. 13:8; ) J/ 

15:18; 1 Sam. (a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah. 

1 : io, 12-17. 

judg. 11:30, 31, (y) Vows of Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the 

35-40, 21. 1, 7, j.j.jbgg Q f i srae ] against Benjamin, because of its outrage 

upon the Levite's concubine, 
judg. 13:3-5, (c) Visions of Samson's parents, and of the child 

9-21 ; 

1 Sam. 3:1-18. Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh. 

1 Sam. 28 : 7-14. (d) Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's 

attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the 

Philistines. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9 

(e) Music and dancing in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21; 

v ' 1 Sam. 10: 5; 

feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16:16-22; 18:6, 

7, 10; 19: 9. 
later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of 

the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times. 

(6) Songs and hymns are seen in the exodus song, Exod. 15:1-21; 
V 7 Judg., chap. 5; 

with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of 1 Sam 2:1-10. 

Hannah. 

(7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under 
divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what 
extent this was true is a matter of dispute between (a) 
those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it 
has come down to us, was the work of one generation, 
and of one man, Moses, and (o) those who believe that 
this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries 
of history, although based upon and growing out of the 
work of Moses (cf. references to literature on §14). 

§ 17. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5; 
influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- isa.'/chap.'i 4 ' 
tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teac h 
a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a 
higher type of worship. This period begins roughly 
with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before 
Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.). The great names of 2Kings23:i-3. 
the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and 
Jonah; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last 
of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor- 
mation came. The details of this reformation belong to 
the second or middle period; but the preparation for 2 Kings 23: 4-14. 
the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the 
prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac- 
tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us 
first note what they were and then the attitude of the 
prophets toward them. 

(1) Places of worship. 

[a) The high places were still used in different parts iSam. 9:12-14, 
of the country, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom 1 Kings '3:3, 4; 
Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- i2*:3i'f.';i4:23; 
mon, even when the temple had been built ; of Jeroboam ; 15:4; 17:9, ",' 

29, 32 ; 18 : 4 ; 

of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc. 
later kings ; and of Ahaz. 



20 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



i Kings 14 : 23 ; 
2 Kings 3:2; 

10: 27; 17: io ; 
Hos. 3:4; 10: 1, 2. 



2 Sam., chap. 6; 
cf. 1 Chron. , 
chaps. 13,15,16. 



1 Kings, chaps. 5, 
6; 7:13-8: 66; 
cf. 1 Chron. , 
chap. 17 ; 22 : 2- 

19; 

2 Chron., chaps. 
a-7. 



1 Sam. 28 : 1-25. 



1 Kings 12 125-33; 
2 Chron. n :14,1s; 
Hos. 8:5, 6. 



1 Kings 12:31-33; 

2 Sam. 6: 13, 14; 
1 Kings 3: 15; 

1 Kings 2:26, 27; 

2 Kings 11:4, 9, 
12,15, 17; 12:2; 

2 Kings 16:12-16. 



1 Kings 8 : 62-65 ; 
Hos. 2: 11; 
Exod. 23 : 18 ; 
Exod. 23: 19; 
Mic. 6:7; 

2 Kings 17: 17. 



(p) The pillars and Asherim occupied even a larger 
place than before, continuing in general use until the 
reign of Josiah. 

(c) The ark was transferred with great solemnity 
to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the 
nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was 
accompanied by music and dancing. 

id) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was 
full of significance for the future history of worship. 
As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his 
temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ- 
ized; a basis was furnished for future development; 
priests and singers must be provided for regular service. 
While at this central place the worship would henceforth 
be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with 
luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all 
its corruption throughout the country at large. 

(<?) The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim (/. e., God), 
was thought to have been called forth after death by the 
witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request. 

(/) The calves setup at Bethel and Gilgal were figures 
of Jehovah, intended to be worshiped by the Israelites of 
the north, in order that they might not be induced to go 
to Jerusalem for worship. 

(2) The priest now became a more important person- 
age; the professional element increased. The bond 
between those engaged in the same work was strengthened 
by association. The Levite was gaining ground, as over 
against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required 
professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his 
time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation 
of the state and church. With the royal sanction the 
priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king 
maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar- 
chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was 
judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were 
to become law. 

(3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great 
scale ; the old idea of communion with God continued ; 
and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 21 

joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened 
bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for. 
Sometimes human sacrifice was offered. 

(4) Times were now more definitely fixed. gjjjj* 3°:^. 
{a) The sabbath was an established institution, what- f^njs 11 .'—. 

ever may have been its origin. I^-iS 7, 9 ' 

(b) The beginnings of a sabbatical year were made, Exod. 23:10, n. 
in the custom of allowing the land to lie fallow every 

seventh year. 

(c) Three agricultural /easts, with dates dependent Exod. 23:14-17; 
upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of 1 Kings 8:2; 

12 * 32 ° 

Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the Hos. 2:11. 
departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the 
first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast .of Ingathering, 
in the autumn. 

(5) Other acts. 

(a) Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of 1 Sam. 7:5, 8, 9; 

v ' J 8:6; 12:23; 

Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's 2 Sam. 7:18-28; 
demand for a king : of David, after Nathan had made 1 Kings's : 22-54 ; 

1 Kings 17: 20-22; 

known to him Jehovah's purpose to establish his house 18:36,37; 

1 L 2 Kings 19:15-19. 

in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's 

child ; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the 

temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the 

widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel; and of Heze- 

kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib. 

(b) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case 2 Sam. 15:7, 8; 
v ' r Amos 2: 12. 

of Absalom, and of the Nazirites. 

(c) Oracles and dreams are seen in David's inquiry of aSam. 2:1; 5:23, 

Jehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle 2 Sam. 7:4; 
J iKmgS3:5ff.; 

with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim ; in Jehovah's £? :5-28 i. 
message to David through Nathan; in Solomon's dream Al ?os 7:1-9; 
at Gibeon ; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before Isa -> cha P- 6 - 
advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead ; and in the use made 
of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of 
Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con- 
nection. 

(d) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed J Sa ™; 28:3-20; 
by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to Mic. 5:12. 
have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later 
prophets. 



22 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



i Sam. 10: 5; 
Amos 5 : 23 ; 6:5; 
2 Sam. 6: 5, 14, 

16; 
Isa . 30 : 29 ; 
1 Kings 1 : 40. 



1 Sam. 18:7; 

2 Sam. 1 : 19-27 ; 
2 Sam. 3:33*. 5 

18:33; 
2 Sam., chap. 22 
=Ps. 18. 



Amos 7:9; 

Hos. 10: 8 ; 
Mic. 1:5; 
1 Kings 14:22,23. 



Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1; 

6:9; 
Mic. 3:11; 
Zeph. 3:4. 



Amos 4: 4; 5:22: 
Hos. 4:13, 14; 
12:11; 13:2; 
Mic. 6:6-8. 



Amos 5:21; 

6 :4-6 ; 
Hos. 2:11; 
Isa. 1 : 13, 14. 



Isa. 1 :i5; 
Mic. 3:4. 



Isa. 8:19; 19:3; 
Mic. 5: 12. 



(e) Music and dancing w 'ere greatly developed in con- 
nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places, 
and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which 
contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of 
Jehovah. 

(6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character, 
as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of 
Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of 
Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at 
other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David 
sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but 
see § 19). 

§ 18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac- 
tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests, 
was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many 
times that — 

(1) The high places were an occasion of sin, and 
aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed. 
They were one of the most effective channels of corrup- 
tion to the worshipers of Jehovah. 

(2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek- 
ing ; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest 
extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry- 
ing the people down to destruction along with them- 
selves. 

(3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the 
people were multiplying offerings with the thought that 
this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless- 
ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to 
him. 

(4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of 
orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These 
were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship, 
and were not yet wholly purified. 

(5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and 
frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were 
evil, and their hands red with blood. 

(6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and 
regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should 
be given to Jehovah. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 23 

§ 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the 
most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study. 
Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (1) that the law is the prod- 
uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner 
as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses; 
and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for 
gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (1) that most of 
the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a 
later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's 
times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become 
pure and spiritual; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of 
them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong 
side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of 
spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have 
existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques- 
tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the 
case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been 
the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they 
could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of 
their spiritual communion with God, until (a) the prophets had preached 
long centuries, (b) the priests themselves had united to purge and 
purify a corrupt worship, (V) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and 
the land laid waste, (d) the inhabitants were carried away into a for- 
eign country, and (e) the nation was taught, once for all, what had 
many times been said, but never actually believed, viz., that there was 
one God, and one only. The psalms as a distinct part of the priests' 
work will receive further consideration in a later chapter. 

See Ewald, Commentary on the Psalms, Vol. I, pp. 60-7 1 ; Perowne, Book of 
Psalms (second edition), Vol.1, pp. 1-21 ; Murray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, 
pp. 127-43; Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter, pp. 190-225 ; 
Kirkpatrick, The Psalms [Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. xxxi-xxxviii ; Driver, 
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 373-80 ; Stanley, 
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXV; articles on "David" in 
HASTINGS' Dictionary of the Bible and Cheyne's Encyclopaedia Biblica. 

The views of some of the most important commentators concerning the number 
of psalms that may be assigned to David are : 

(1) Binney, all, or nearly all, assigned by tradition. 

(2) Olshausen, Lengerke, Cheyne, Baethgen, Duhm, Wellhausen, probably none. 

(3) Hitzig, 3-19, except 5, 6, 14. 

(4) Ewald, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, 101, and some fragments. 

(5) Delitzsch, 3-19, 22-24, 25, 28-30, 32, 34, 36-39, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56-63, and some 
others doubtful. 



24 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Exod. 20:1-17; 
Deut. 5:6-21; 
Exod. 34: 10-28; 
Exod. 20:22 — 
23:33. 



(6) Perowne grants that some of those ascribed to David cannot have been 
written by him, but thinks that he " personally contributed more than any other indi- 
vidual" to the Psalter, and was the founder of a school of sacred poetry. Similarly 
also Kirkpatrick. 

§20. The Laws of the Early Period may be classified 
under three heads : the decalogue, in two editions ; the 
small book of the covenant ; and the larger book of the 
covenant. Before considering these separately, a few 
points may be suggested concerning them as a whole : 

(a) However early or late they may have taken on 
their present literary form, they themselves certainly go 
back to the period of Israel's earliest history. 

(b) They contain much material which, of course, had 
an existence long before the days of Moses ; e. g., there 
had been prohibition of murder and of stealing centuries 
before Moses. 

(e) They reflect, in general, an early and, indeed, 
primitive stage of society; but this stage is the agricul- 
tural, and therefore later than the nomadic, 

(a) They are arranged in groups of ten, or of five. 

(1) The decalogue. 

(a) It is said to have had its origin in different ways ; 
e.g., as having been (1) spoken by God, (2) given through 
angels, (3) written by the finger of God. 

(b) It is given different names ; e. g., (1) the ten words, 
(2) the words of the covenant, (3) tables of the cove- 
nant, (4) covenant, (5) testimony, (6) two tables of testi- 
mony. 

(e) It has two forms, viz., that in Exod. 20 : 1— 1 7, and 
that in Deut. 5 : 6-21 ; and although both are said to have 
been engraved on stone, there are many differences ; e. g. y 
(1) the first word of the fourth commandment; (2) the 
reason assigned for observance of the fourth command- 
ment, viz., the creation and rest of God in the one, the 
bringing of Israel out of Egypt in the other ; (3) the two 
additional clauses in the one form of the fifth command- 
ment; (4) the different order of the first two clauses and 
the addition of " his field " in the tenth commandment. 

(d) It has been suggested that originally all the com-' 
mandments consisted, like the sixth, seventh, and eighth, 



Exod. 20:1, 22; 
Exod. 24: 12; 
Deut. 5:4; 
Acts 7 .53; 
Gal. 3:19; 
Heb. 2:2. 
Exod. 34:28, 29; 
Deut. 4: 13; 
Deut. 5:2; 9:5; 
10:4. 



Exod. 20:8; 

cf Deut. 5:12; 
Exod. 20: 12; 

cf. Deut. 5:16; 
Exod. 20: 17; 

cf. Deut. 5:21. 



WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 25 

of one or two words, and that the remainder, e. g., in the 
second, third, and fifth, was added at a later time. 

(<?) It is divided (i) into ten words, but the division is 
not clear, since the Lutheran and Romish churches com- 
bine the first and second as one and divide the tenth ; 
(2) into two tables, but, here again, Jewish and Christian 
scholars, ancient and modern, fail to agree, three methods 
being advocated, according as the two tables contained, 
the first, three commandments, and the second, seven ; 
the first, four, and the second, six; the first, five, and the 
second, five. 

(2) The small book of the covenant, the laws of which Exod. 34:12-14; 

34:17; 34:19,20; 
may thus be grouped : (a) five on the dutv of worship- 34:21,18,22, 
z v " 23534:25,26. 

ing only Jehovah; (b) one on image-worship; (c) five on 

the offering of firstlings; (d) five on feasts ; (<?) four on 
sacrifices and offerings. These laws seem to have been 
written in groups of five or ten, groups (b) and (<?) hav- 
ing lost part of their number. They are all directly 
concerned with worship. 

O) The large book of the covena?it, which contains : (a) Exod. 20:23-26; 
-. . 21:2-6; 21:7- 

five enactments on worship; 1 (b) five on rights of slaves ; n; 21: 12-16; 

/ 21: 17; 21:18- 

(c) five on slave concubines; (a) five on acts of violence. 25521:26—22:1 

22 :2-6; 22: 7- 

Then follows one (a fragment) on the reviling of father and 17; 22 : 18-20; 

22*21 ~2*7 * 

mother. After that (e) five on personal injuries ; (/) and 22:28-30; 
, N .....' . . , 1 -, 22:31:23:1-3; 

(g) ten on injuries in connection with property, slaves, and 23:4-5; 23:6-9; 

cattle ; (h) five on theft and damage to property ; (/) and 
(J) ten on breaches of trust. Then follow three frag- 
ments on sexual crimes, magic, sacrifice to other gods. 
After that (k) five on the dealings with the weak and 
poor ; (/) five on reverence and offerings. Then follow 
two on purity. After that (m) five on testimony. Then 
follow two on kindness. After that (n) five on justice, 
and (0) and {p) ten on feasts and offerings. In all there 
are sixteen groups of five, and eight fragments of groups, 
each of which probably consisted of five. 

A study of the subjects given above, and a reading 
of the enactments, will show the early character of these 
laws as contrasted with those given in Deuteronomy and 
Leviticus. It is to be noted (i) that the greater part of 

x In this classification the laws relating to worship are italicized. 



23: 10-19. 



26 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

this code is concerned with subjects which are not today 
thought of as religious, but that in early times there was 
no distinction between "religious" and "secular" — 
everything was religious; (2) that all the enactments 
concerning religion, in the narrower sense of the word, 
have to do with its objective features — feasts, sacrifices, 
offerings, ritual, etc. — all of which is included in wor- 
ship. It is these enactments that lie back of the teach- 
ing of the prophets down to about 650 B. C. 

In the next study it will appear that great and fundamental changes 
are to occur after 650 B. C. in all the regulations which concern the 
subject of worship and its allied subjects. 



CHAPTER Hi. 

THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 

§21. The Middle Old Testament Period (see § M ( 2 )) ,Kin gS22 . 8 - 
nad for its most striking event the discovery and pub- 23 ' 3 ' 
ication of the book of the law, known in these 
later times as Deuteronomy. It is impossible here as 
m the history of any period, to draw sharp lines' of 
separation. 

(i) Just when this middle period began cannot 
be fixed definitely. But this much is clear, that the 
work of the prophets (cf. § l8 ) in the years preced- 
ing 621 B. C. (a) pointed out the evils which had !«.,:„; ,,. 
crept mto the worship of the people; (t) presented "tft.*"" 
such conceptions of God's justice, love, holiness, and Stt'SSj. 
unity as would furnish a basis for higher and more spir- 6:, - 5:etc -' 
itual forms of worship than those which were already 
m ex,stence ; and this (,) prepared the way for some- 
thing which, up to this time, the people could not 
appreciate. 

(2) Just when this middle period ended is likewise 
indefinite, but it is evident that after and out of this 
period there came a still higher form of worship, des- 
tined in God's providence (a) to endure through a period 
of great political and religious upheaval, and (b) to 
serve as the basis for a worship still higher in its ideals 
and in its spiritual character. 

§ 22. Three Distinct Stages May be Traced in the his- 
tory of the middle or Deuteronomic period. These may 
be classified as : 

(i) The pre-exilie stage, which ended with the removal ,««.,..,„ 
of the pe0 p, e from their land and with the destruction '^^''^ 
of the temple around which the whole system of worship 
centered. 

(2) The exilic stage, during which the people were in 
Babylon, away from all the familiar scenes of worship 

27 



28 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

and under the influence of an entirely new religious 

environment. 

Ezra, chap, i ; (3) The post-exilic stage, beginning with the return 

from exile, including the building of the second temple, 

and ending approximately with the visit of Ezra to 

Jerusalem. 

§ 23. The Deliverance of Jerusalem in Hezekiah's Day 

(701 B. C.) had exerted a marked influence on worship. 

To Hezekiah is ascribed an important work as reformer, 

2 Kings 18:4; in that he (1) removed the high places, (2) broke the pillars, 
cf. Isa. 36:7. v J a r - \ / r > 

(3) cut down the Asherim, (4) broke in pieces the brazen 

serpent that Moses had made, which, in his day, was wor- 

Amos 7:9; shiped as a representation of God in Jerusalem. In so far 

Hos. 10:1,2; r r 

isa. 30:22; 31:7. as these things were accomplished, Hezekiah was acting 
in accordance with the commands of the prophets (see 
§ 18). But it seems that the work was not as thorough- 
going as it might have been, since in Josiah's times, 

2 Kings 23: 13. seventy or eighty years later, the high places erected by 
Solomon near Jerusalem were still in existence. Heze- 
kiah's reformation, however transient, was closely con- 
nected with the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennach- 
erib and the Assyrian army in 701 B. C. This invasion 

2 Kings 18: 13; had two results : (1) The outlying villages with their high 
places were destroyed and dishonored, and the country 
people came to see that the worship as practiced in the 

2 Kings 19:20-37. high places was of no avail in times of great distress. (2) 
Jerusalem, the temple, and the God whose worship was 
conducted in the temple (a worship beyond question 
comparatively pure) were delivered, and thereby greatly 
honored, for the whole nation had therein a posi- 

Deut. 12 : 2-19. five experience of Jehovah's power. This paved the 
way for the exaltation of the temple-worship and the 
destruction of the worship in the high places, changes 
which together form the great characteristic of the mid- 
dle period. 

See W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), pp. 353-64; 
Cornill, The Prophets of Israel, pp. 67 f.; Driver, Isaiah, His Life 
and Times, pp. 66-83 ; the article " Hezekiah " in Hastings' Dic- 
tionary of the Bible, Vol. II, p. 377 ; and the corresponding article 
(§ 1) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II. 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 29 

§ 24. Manasseh's Reign Brought a Great Reaction. — 
This came about because (i) the prophetic party (that is, 
the party of reformers) pushed forward more rapidly 
than the people could follow, e. g., {a) in destroying the 
objects and places of worship held in veneration by the 
people for many centuries, and (b) in holding up con- 2 Kings 18:4; 
ceptions of God and of life which the people were still too 
ignorant and debased to appreciate ; (2) the people were 
disappointed in the hope, raised by the prophets, that 
with Jerusalem's deliverance Assyria would perish, when, 
as a matter of fact, Assyria still remained powerful, sub- 2Chron. 33:11. 
duing Egypt and taking tribute from Judah ; (3) the 
people believed that this failure of their desires and the c/. jer. 44 : 15-19. 
consequent adversity had their origin in the proposed 
reforms of the prophets, and that these very reforms 
(e. g., the breaking down of the high places) were dis- 
pleasing to Jehovah. 

The reaction exhibited itself in (1) the murder of the 2 Kings 21: 16; 

v ' Jer. 2 : 30. 

prophets and their partisans ; (2) setting up again the idols, 2 Kings 21 : 3-5. 

and the Asherim ; (3) giving permission to enchanters 2 Kings 21: 6. 

and augurs and witches and wizards to practice their 

r 2 Kings 21 : 6 ; 

arts; (4) encouraging human sacrifice; (5) introducing 23:10; 
the worship of other gods even within the temple itself, 
e. g. f the host of heaven — the chariots of the sun being 23:11,12. 
placed within the temple. 

§ 25. The Discovery of the Deuteronomic Law followed 
a generation or so of prophetic silence. This silence 
was occasioned by persecution, and had for its result 
the production of a work which, in itself, summed up 
prophecy and furnished the text-book of worship for a 
long time to come. While the mouth of the prophet 
was closed, his pen worked. In this work the lessons Deut. 4 : 15-19 ; 

cut i > • i r i Deut. 6 : 14, 15 ; 

of Manassen s reaction were taken into account ; for the Deut. 17:14-20. 
new order of worship, while revolutionary in some 
aspects, was, after all, an evolution from that which pre- 
ceded it. The new cult went as far as possible in retain- Deut. 15:19; 
,i 111 .1 • t i Deut. 16:16. 

ing old usages and old ceremonies, thus avoiding the 
difficulties occurring in connection with the earlier 
attempts at reformation. Many other things were 
learned anew from the experience of the reaction, e.g., 



30 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Deut. 12:2-4. tne demoralizing influence of the high places, and the 
necessity of purging and purifying the ritual. These 
were incorporated in the written document. 

See Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 62-4 ; Cornill, 
op. cit., pp. 80-82 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary 
on Deuteronomy , pp. xlix-lxii. 

No opportunity, however, presented itself under 
Manasseh or Amon for the promulgation of this book. 
It was put away in the temple. In Josiah's reign, (1) 
when the hearts of the people were being turned to 
Jehovah by the terror aroused in connection with the 

jer.i:i,2; Scythian invasion; (2) when Jeremiah and Zephaniah 

were preaching with all the vigor of the older prophets ; 

2 Kings 22 : 1, 2. (3) when Josiah, a young man, was turning his face in the 
Kings 22:3-8. direction of the true God ; (4) when the temple was being 
cleansed and repaired, in order that Jehovah might be 
thereby honored — then this book, the book of Deuter- 
onomy, was discovered, brought to the king, read to him, 
and read again to the people. The immediate circum- 
stances of this discovery are described in some detail ; e. g. : 

2 Kings 22 : 8-10. (1) The book was found by Hilkiah, the high -priest, and 
given by him to Shaphan, the scribe, who read it, took it 

2 Kings 22:11-14. to King Josiah, and read it to him. (2) The king was 
greatly grieved as he listened and realized how far short 
of the demands of this book the religious life of Israel 
had fallen. He at once sent a delegation of leading men 
to Huldah, a prophetess, to inquire Jehovah's will con- 

2 Kings 22 : 15-20. cerning the book. (3) She declared that the judg- 
ments it contained would fall upon Israel because of 
their desertion of Jehovah and their worship of other 
gods, but that Josiah would reign in peace because of 

2 Kings 23: 1-3. his faithfulness to Jehovah. (4) Upon hearing this, 
Josiah called a great meeting of all the people, read the 
newly found book to them, and caused them to join him 
in a covenant with Jehovah to conform to Jehovah's 
requirements as laid down therein. Thereupon the work 
of reform was begun throughout the land. 

§ 26. The Results of the Finding of Deuteronomy are 
very fully given us in the sacred narrative. These results 
constituted what is called Josiah's. reformation, and 
included : 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3 1 

(1) The destruction of the high places and altars 2 Kings 23 : 8, 12, 
throughout the land. 

(2) The breaking down of the pillars and Asherim. 2 Kings 23:6, 14. 

(3) The removal of the teraphim and other idols. 2 Kings 23 124. 

(4) The destruction of the horses and chariots of the 2 Kings 23:11. 
sun. 

(5) The deposition and destruction of idolatrous 2 Kings 23:5,8,9, 

20. 
priests and of the priests of the high places. 

(6) The abolition of human sacrifice. 2 Kings 23: 10. 

(7) The observance of the Feast of the Passover. 2 Kings 23:21-23. 

(8) The prohibition of sorcerers and wizards. 2 Kings 23 = 24. 

(9) The purification of worship involved in doing 2 Kings 23: 7. 
away with the Sodomites. 

Two things may be said : (a) There is nothing essen- 
tial commanded in Deuteronomy which Josiah did not 
try to do ; (b) every single act of the reformation will be 
found commanded in Deuteronomy. 

§ 27. The Teaching of Deuteronomy on the more 
important points of worship may be briefly summarized 
as follows : x 

(1) Object of worship. — Jehovah only is to be wor- Deut. 6:4; 10:20; 

1 • i n • t 1 ii 1 • r i • 1 13:6-11; 17-2-5: 

shiped ; all idols and other objects of worship must be 16:21 f. ,7: 5, 25. 

destroyed. 

(2) Place of worship. — Worship is permitted only at Deut. 12:2-7, n, 

17 f., 26-28. 
one central sanctuary, viz., the temple at Jerusalem. All 

local shrines are to be destroyed. 

(3) Priests. — These now become a distinct class, the Deut. 10:8,9. 
tribe of Levi being set apart to perform the priestly 
function. There are, of course, more Levites than 

are needed for priests ; these are to be teachers and 

judges. The duties of the Levites at the local sanctua- Deut. 18:1-8. 

ries being abolished, many of them are naturally without 

means of support, and special provision has to be made 

for them in the law. 

^Sacrifice. — The continuance of sacrifice is taken Deut. 12:131; 
for granted, but every sacrifice is to be offered at the 
central sanctuary. All firstlings are, as before, especially 
designated as sacrifices to Jehovah. 

1 The examination of this book as a code of laws will be taken up later in this 
course of study. 



32 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Deut. 5 : 12-15. 
Deut 15 : 1-18. 



Jer. 34 : 1-20. 
Deut. 16 : 1-15. 



Deut. 14: 3-21. 



Deut. 23 : 21-23. 

Deut. 14: 28 f. ; 

26: 12. 
Deut. 18: 10-12; 

23: 17I ; 14: 1. 

Deut. 9: 20, 26-29. 



Deut. 6:4; 4 : 28 : 
10: 17. 



Deut. 4 : 32-36 ; 
cf. Exod. 19: 6. 



Deut. 12 : 2-7. 



Deut. 10:8. 



(5) Days and seasons. — Set times of worship are 
appointed to be observed : (a) The sabbath is preserved 
unchanged, (b) The sabbatical year becomes established, 
and is extended to the cancellation of all debts owed by 
Hebrews to their fellow-countrymen and to the release 
of all Hebrew slaves. There was an unsuccessful attempt 
to enforce this provision with reference to slaves in the 
reign of Zedekiah. (c) Three annual feasts are fixed, as 
before, in connection with the agricultural seasons ; but, 
like all other acts of worship, they are to be celebrated at 
Jerusalem. New elements appear in the fixing of the 
duration of the Feast of Tabernacles at seven days, and 
of Pentecost at one day, and in the connection of the 
Passover with the exodus from Egypt. No reference is 
made to feasts of the moon. 

(6) Other acts of worship. — (a) A list of clean and 
unclean animals is given ; this classification probably 
had a religious basis ; (b) faithfulness in the performance 
of vows is enjoined ; (c) sl triennial tithe is imposed which is 
to be given to the Levite, the widow, and the poor ; (d) 
perverted acts of worship, such as human sacrifice, sorcery, 
etc., are prohibited; (e) prayers of Moses are recorded. 

See Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 64-7 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical 
Commentary on Deuteronomy, pp. xix-xxxiv ; article " Deuteronomy " 
(§§ 2 7 _ 3 2 ) i n Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I ; and corresponding article 
(§ iv) in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I. 

§ 28. The Full Significance of the Deuteronomic Prin- 
ciples, the Spirit with which These are Presented, and the 
Great Changes Wrought by Their Adoption are difficult to 
appreciate. Some of these points may be noted : 

(1) The fundamental idea is that there is but one 
god worthy to be called God ; other gods are wood 
and stone. 

(2) With such a God dealing directly with the nation, 
Israel's life must be high and holy ; for otherwise it will 
be unworthy. 

(3) There shall be only one place of worship, and 
that the temple in Jerusalem; in this way the licentious 
nature-worship can be done away with. 

(4) The conduct of worship must be guarded, and 






WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 33 

consequently it is placed under the control of a special 
tribe, the Levites. 

(5) The method of presentation is a wonderful one, 

being twofold, prophetic and priestly; viz., (a) exhorta- Deut. 4:1-13; 
tions of the most " sweetly impressive" character, full of 
spiritual strength; (b) laws, many of them dating from Deut. 5:6-21. 
the earliest times, others from a later period ; some of Deut., chaps, 
them apparently arbitrary in their tone, others full of 
the reasons which should lead to their observance. 

(6) The spirit throughout is the spirit of love, and is Deut. 7:7-1°; 
akin to that exhibited in the book of Hosea. " The 

primal love of Jehovah to Israel fills the foreground of 

each writer's discourse, and all human relationships within 

the Israelitish community are rooted in this." 2 But this Deut. 6:17-19; 

J Deut. 10:18. 

love is no sentimental love; Israel's God is a God of 
justice as well as of love. 

(7) The restriction of worship to one place is Deut. 14: 22-27, 
" tantamount to a suppression of religion in the whole 

country outside of Jerusalem." 3 How can the country 
people now consult Jehovah? The neighboring altar Deut. 19 : 1-13. 
to which the fugitive might flee and be safe is done away 
with, and distant cities of refuge are only a partial sub- 
stitute ; while the function of the altar as a place to 
which the people might come and receive judgment is 
given to the gates of the cities and to the temple at Jeru- Deut. 16: 18; 
salem. Israel in the country must now live without God, 
with whom before he had lived so closely. 

(8) The feasts are beginning to be denaturalized ; that 
is, they are losing their agricultural significance, and are 
to be more and more closely associated with historical 
events — the Feast of Unleavened Bread, with the flight 
from Egypt; the Feast of Weeks, with the giving of the law 
on Sinai ; the Feast of Tabernacles, with the journey in 
the desert. Religion is a matter of fixed days and sea- 
sons, rather than an everyday affair. 

(9) The setting apart of priests, and the placing of 

See article " Feasts " (§§ 9, 10) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II ; 
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 91 f.; Cor- 
NILL, op. cit., p. 86. 

3 Cheyne, op. cit., p. 66. sCornili., op. cit., p. 85. 



34 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

all worship in their hands, thus compelling the people 

to make use of them, while beforetime the use of a priest 

was voluntary, draws the line sharply between laity and 

Deut. 18:3521:5; clergy. The priest changes his function; for he is now 

26 : 3 , 4 ; 

Deut. 17:9, 12; preeminently a sacrificer, while before he consulted the 



20 : 2-4 ; 24:8. 



oracle and announced the divine will. 



30 : 10. 



Deut. 14:24^; (10) The significance of the sacrifice is greatly 

changed. Sacrifice being lawful only at the one central 
sanctuary, it was offered for the most part only in con- 
nection with the three great yearly festivals when all 
Israelites were required to be at Jerusalem. The popular, 
joyous aspect of it as a banquet and as an offering of 
joy and thanksgiving, made frequently and in connection 
with any suitable occasion, now begins to disappear, and 
a more and more solemn and expiatory character is given 
to all sacrifice. 

Deut. 4:40; 6:1- (11) What is it henceforth to be religious ? To do 

i'i%* 5 ii; ' 3 the thing laid down in a book. The day that saw Deut- 
eronomy accepted, its ritual of worship adopted, and its 
teaching concerning priest and sacrifice recognized — that 
day saw the beginning of the death of prophecy. It was, 
of course, the prophets' own w6rk; but they had estab- 
lished the agency by which, later, they themselves would 
be strangled ; because from this time forward the voice 
of the prophet is unnecessary. 
See Cornill, op. cit., p. 89. 

(12) The adoption of Deuteronomy signified the 
separation of church and state. This was necessary, for 
the state is soon to die — within thirty-five years. This 
separation made it possible for the church to live, after 
the death of the state. 

See Cornill, op. cit., p. 88. 

(13) The act of Josiah and his people in accepting 
Deuteronomy was the first step toward the canonization 
of Holy Scripture — the first step in a long line of similar 
events which have given us the Bible with our modern 
conceptions of inspiration. 

(14) In a word, worship, whether viewed narrowly or 
broadly, is henceforth almost^, new thing. The Israelitish 
religion seems to have been revolutionized. Of course, 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 35 

a closer study shows that all this was evolution, not 
revolution ; the prophets had prepared the way; the 
prophets and priests worked together. A priest found 
the book and gave it to the king, and the priests 
received through this book privileges they had never 
before enjoyed. 

See Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 17 1-9. 

§ 29. A Second Reaction followed after thirteen years • 
of successful work on the part of Jeremiah and Josiah. 

(1) Jeremiah at the beginning of the reformation had Jer. 11:1-6,18-23. 
preached the contents of this book throughout the vil- 
lages of Judah, sometimes incurring the opposition and 
persecution of his friends. 

(2) The times that followed for thirteen years were 
quiet and prosperous ; the king and the people lived 
before God and received his blessing. 

(3) Perhaps during this time the work of the sages Cf. Prov., chaps, 
began to flourish. • jer. 18:18. 

(4) Assyria was losing ground; Necho of Egypt 2 Kings 23: 29; 

2 Onroiit 35 • 20~24* 

(608 B. C.) began to encroach upon the Assyrian terri- 
tory. Josiah met him at the battle of Megiddo and was 
slain. The reformation failed. The people believed 
the king's death was a divine punishment for changing 
the forms of worship in their religion. The opposing 2 Kings 23 .-36 f. ; 
party gained control, and then followed the series of 
events which resulted, in a few years, in the downfall of 
the kingdom. 

§ 30. The Significance of the Babylonian Exile in its 
Relationship to Worship cannot easily be overestimated. 
Its effect upon some of the principal ideas and institu- 
tions may be noted here : 

(1) Object of worship. — The removal to Babylonia 2 Kings 25 .- 13-17 
involved the leaving behind of all idolatrous objects of 
worship, or their confiscation or destruction by the con- 
queror. The leaders of Israel's religious life looked Ezek. 6 : u-14 ; 
upon idolatry as one of the chief causes of the exile. 
The removal from the land with which Jehovah had 
always been associated to a land which was the dominion 

of another god also involved either an acknowledgment isa. 40 : ia-31 ; 

& ° 44: 9-20; 45:5-7 

of the power of this foreign god, or else the maintenance 46:5-7. 



36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

of a belief in Jehovah's supremacy and universality. That 
this higher conception of Jehovah prevailed is clear from 
the fact that we hear nothing of idolatry after the return 
from the exile, and especially from the teachings of Isa., 
chaps. 40-66. 

(2) Place of worship. — The temple being destroyed, 

and all the familiar scenes of worship being left behind, 

together with all material and external reminders of 

isa. 45 : 18-22 ; Jehovah's presence, the worshipers were necessarily led 

48 : 12 ; 

isa. 51:12, 13. to a more spiritual conception of God. Moreover, 
absence from the temple developed an ability to do with- 
out the temple services which was in part responsible for 
the origin of synagogues. 

Ezek , chaps. 40- (3) The occupation of the priests was gone, in so far 
as it was dependent upon the temple. The book of 
Ezekiel furnishes an illustration of one phase of priestly 

isa. 61:6. activity during these days. The thought of Israel as a 

nation of priests appears. 

isa. 43:22-24; (4) Sacrifice could no longer be offered, but it did not 

56 : 7. 

lose any of its importance in the thought of the people, 
isa. 56:2, 4, 6; (5) Times and seasons. — (a) The sabbath, being an 

58 : 13 ; 66 : 23. 

institution which was independent of the temple, could still 
be kept, and it received much emphasis during and after 
this period. Sabbaths were also observed by the Baby- 
lonians, (b) Feasts, which had always been occasions of 
joy, could no longer be observed legally, and emphasis 

isa. 58:3-50 was laid on (c) fasts, which were of an exactly opposite 

character and were not dependent upon the temple. 

(6) Other acts of worship. — (a) In the absence of all 
the regular public means of worship, those who wor- 
shiped "in spirit and in truth" naturally had frequent 

isa. 63 : 15— 64 : 12 ; recourse to prayer. The future temple is thought of as 

s6 : 7. 

isa. 52:1,11. a house of prayer, (b) The recognition of the captivity 

as a punishment for sin led to an exalted conception of 
Jehovah's holiness and to the laying of great emphasis 

isa 65:1-7,11; upon ceremonial cleanness, (c) It is probable, however, 

66 : 3, 4. 

that many became apostates from the Jehovah-worship 
and took up the worship of their conquerors. 
cf. Ezek. 10: 9-22. (7) The influence of the Babylonian worship on Israel's 

ritual is evident in succeeding ritualistic legislation, as 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 37 

also in some of Ezekiel's imagery. Jehovah through the 
exile again brought Israel into contact with a great 
religion, as he had already done in the case of Baalism. 
Just as Israel had learned some truths through Baalism, 
and to some extent had enriched the cultus of Jehovah 
thereby, so was she to do through the agency of Baby- 
lon's worship. 

§31. The Priest-Prophet of the Captivity, Ezekiel, 
occupied an important place in the further development 
of the ritual of worship. His place may only be 
touched upon here. With prophetic idealism, legalist 
though he was, his vision pictured a future temple, a 
future service, and a future priesthood, as follows : 

(a) The temple. — While the temple of Solomon had 
been virtually a part of the royal palace, the new temple 
is to be wholly separate from the royal dwellings and 
from all other ordinary habitations ; for it is the earthly 
habitation of the most holy God, who had abandoned Bzek. 45:1-8. 
the former city and temple because of their profanation by 
sin and uncleanness. To prevent any such profanation 
of Jehovah in future 

the sacred "oblation," the domain of the priests, Levites, Ezek. 48 : 7-23. 
prince, and city, is placed in the center of the restored tribes, 
Judah on one side of it and Benjamin on the other. In the 
midst of this oblation is the portion of the priests, that of the 
Levites lying on one side, and that of the city on the other. 
In the middle of the priests' portion stands the temple. This 
is a great complex of buildings, around which on all sides lies 
a free space or suburbs. Then comes a great wall surround- 
ing the whole buildings, forming a square of five hundred 
cubits. Within this wall is an outer court, and within this 

an inner court In this inner court stands the altar, 

and to the back of it the temple house. The house has also 
a graduated series of compartments increasing in sanctity 
inwards — an outer apartment or porch, an inner or holy 
place, and an innermost, where the presence of Jehovah * 
abides. 4 

{b) The priests. — The sons of Zadok only are to be Ezek. 44 : 4-16. 
priests ; all other Levites are to be subordinate ministers, 
performing the more menial tasks of the sanctuary. 

4 Davidson, The Book of Ezekiel (Cambridge Bible), p. 290. 



38 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Foreigners are not to be permitted to enter the temple, 
as heretofore, to perform any tasks. The distinction 
between clergy and laity is clearly marked; none of the 
latter — not even the prince — may enter the inner court 

Ezek. 44 : 17-28. of the temple. The sanctity of the priests as the ones 
ministering in the presence of Jehovah is strongly empha- 
sized and guarded in many ways, such as the requirement 
that they wear special garments while discharging their 

Ezek. 44 : 29, 30. sacred functions. They live upon their share of the sac- 
rifices of the people. 

(c) Sacrifice occupies an important place in the ritual. 

Ezek. 43 : 18-26 ; The various kinds mentioned are : (1) the sin-offering, 

Ezek. 43:27; which is much emphasized; (2) burnt-offerings, which 

44:11. / \ 1 rr • 

Ezek. 42:13. are numerous; (3) the trespass-offering, which was a 

Ezek. 46:13-15. variety of the sin-offering; (4) the meal-offering ; (5) the 

Ezek. 46 : 19-24. peace-offering; (6) the continual burnt- offering made every 

morning. Special places are provided for the cooking 

of the offerings that are to be eaten by priests and people. 

Ezek. 44:24. (a 1 ) Times and seasons. — The old times are all to be 

Ezek. 45:17— observed, viz., the sabbath, the new moons, and the three 

feasts, the Passover receiving special notice. 

§32. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of 

These Times appears most strongly. This means that the 

priest- work was gaining ground, while the prophetic work 

was losing ground. But it will be noted that(#)anewsitua- 

tion was coming in which the priest-work would be more 

greatly needed; and (b) the priest-work had taken into 

itself all that had been contributed by the prophets. It 

is true, therefore, that not the priest-work pure and 

simple, but the priest-work as strengthened by, and as 

containing, the truth proclaimed through prophets, was 

the power that now held the forefront. 

This priestly element is seen — 

jer. 1:1. (1) In the priestly birth and character of the prophet 

Jeremiah, whose home was at Anathoth, one of the 

headquarters of the priests. 

Deut., chaps. 12- (2) In the priestly character of a large portion of the 

26. 

book of Deuteronomy. 

Deut. 18:5; (3) In the position now occupied by the priests as 

c/.judg. 17:7-13. com p ar ed with their former position. 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 39 

(4) In the priestly character and service of Ezekiel. Ezek. 1 : 3 ; chaps 

r, 40-48. 

§33. The Return of the People from the Babylo- Ezra 2 164! 
nian Exile introduced an entirely new situation. It was 
one, however, in which for eighty years (538-458 B. C.) 
the book of Deuteronomy and its regulations were 
supreme. It was a time of discouragement ; the high 
hopes of the returning exiles were dashed to the ground 
in the presence of desolated homes, wasted lands, fail- 
ure of crops, loss of political independence, and the c/. Hag. 2 : 15-19. 
destruction of Jerusalem. The struggle against these 
adverse conditions seems to have absorbed most of their 
energies during the first years after the return, the re- 
quirements of worship being largely neglected. We 
may note the attitude toward some of the principal 
institutions. 

(a) The temple. — Partly because of opposition on the Ezra 5: 2; 
part or certain enemies, but chiefly on account of dis- Ezra 6 115. 
couragement and indifference, the foundation of the 
temple was not laid until December, 520 B. C , eighteen 

years after the return, and the work was not finished 

until 516 B. C. Because of the poverty of the people, Hag. 2:3; 

Ezra 3: 12. 

this new temple fell far short of the splendor of the old. 

The religious leaders were convinced that prosperity and Ezra 5: 1,2. 

glory could come to Israel only if the temple were first 

restored. This shows how large a place it had come to Hag. 1:9, 10. 

occupy in religious thought and practice. 

(b) The priest was gaining more and more importance 

in the life and worship of the people. Of the returning Ezra 2: 36-39. 
exiles a large proportion consisted of priests and other 
temple servants. There seems to have been develop- 
ing the distinction between priests and Levites which Ezra 6: 18, 20. 
was to become fixed later. That the distinction was 
not yet clearly made is evident from the fact that the Ezra 8: 20; 10:5; 
two titles appear to be synonymous in some passages, a -3-3- 
just as they are in Deuteronomy. One priest had 
already achieved prominence as the leader of his breth- zech. 3.1-9; 
ren, and he appeared side by side with the prince in all Hag."'^ 12 ; 
important concerns, and was superior to him in reli- 
gious affairs. A high standard was set up for the priests 1^1.2:5-9; 3:3. 
by Malachi, and their corruption was severely denounced. 



40 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Mai. 3 : 8, g. 



Ezra 3 : 2, 3. 



Mai. 1:7,8, 12-14 ; 
Mai. 3:8., 



Ezra 3: 4. 5; 

6: 19-22; 
Zech. 7:1-7; 
Zech. 8:18, 19. 



Ezra 3: 10, 11. 



Mai. 1 : 14. 
Mai. 3 : 5. 
Neh. 1:4-11; 2:4; 
etc. 



Hag. 1 : 8-10 ; 
Zech. 1: 16; 4:9; 
6:12-15. 



Zech. 3:1-10; 
4:2,3; 6:11; 
7:1-7; 8:18, 19. 



Mai. 1 : 6-14 ; 

2:1-9; 
Mai. 3:1-4; 

3:8-10; 
Mai. 4 : 4. 



Tithes for the support of the priests were still in force, 
but were reluctantly paid. 

(c) Sacrifice was at once renewed at Jerusalem upon 
the return from exile, if, indeed, it had ever wholly ceased. 
One of the earliest acts was the erection of an altar of 
burnt-offering upon the site of the former temple, that 
the regular sacrifices might be offered to Jehovah. These 
sacrifices were probably those provided for in Deuter- 
onomy (cf. § 27 (4)) and earlier laws. Malachi denounces 
those who bring maimed, imperfect, and polluted offer- 
ings, and insists upon the best of everything as an offer- 
ing to Jehovah. 

(d) Times and seasons. — These probably continued 
the same as they had been under the Deuteronomic law. 
Specific mention is made, in the literature that comes 
from these days, only of the Feast of the New Moon, the 
Feast of Tabernacles, the Passover, and of four fasts 
which had been observed every year since the beginning 
of the exile. 

(e) Other acts of worship. — (1) Music and singing are 
mentioned in connection with the laying of the founda 
tion stone of the temple. (2) Vows were still made. 
(3) Sorcery was not even yet wholly uprooted. (4) That 
the habit of prayer was not discontinued is clear from 
Nehemiah's statements concerning himself at a little later 
time. 

§ 34. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of 
these later years is seen in — 

{a) The emphasis laid upon the necessity of build- 
ing the temple as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of 
Jehovah's favor. This is the main theme of Haggai's 
prophecy. 

(b) The prominence given to priestly interests in the 
utterances of Zechariah, who speaks of the temple, the 
high-priest, fasts, feasts, etc. 

(c) The large place given to matters pertaining to 
worship in the book of Malachi, which probably comes 
from the very end of this period. The main interest of 
the author seems to be centered in an effort to reform 
the ritual and those who have charge of it. 



WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4 1 

§35. The Songs and Hymns of the Middle Period are 
very numerous. Their spirit may be gathered from the 
following examples : 

( 1) Songs celebrating the deliverance of Jerusalem, Pss. 46; 48. 
as in the days of Hezekiah. 

(2) Songs describing the wickedness of the times, Pss. 36 ; 54 ; 64. 
as in the days of Manasseh. 

(3) Songs depicting the destruction of Jerusalem Pss.8o;3i. 
and the going into captivity. 

(4) Songs expressing the sense of loneliness and Pss. 137; 22; 69; 
wretchedness experienced during the exile. 

(5) Songs celebrating the joy and gladness of the Pss.i26;n5. 
return from exile. 

(6) Songs of the second temple, written particularly Pss. 106; 107. 
for congregational worship. 

It is to be noted concerning the songs thus classi- 
fied— 

(a) That those of earlier date were considerably 
modified in the later days when the use of songs in 
congregational worship was more thoroughly established. 

(£) That it is exceedingly difficult to fix exactly the 
date of many psalms because of the lack of historical 
indications ; i. e., references to historical events. 

(c) That many psalms which seem to express indi- 
vidual experiences and aspirations are really congrega- 
tional in their character; i. e., they were written to express 
the feelings of a community. 

(d) That a fuller treatment of this part of the ele- 
ment of worship will be presented later. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD. 

§36. The Later Old Testament Period in the history of worship is 
the story of Judaism, that is, the Jewish religion, which was the daugh- 
ter of the Hebrew religion. The period, rightly considered, (1) begins 
with the Babylonian exile (§30), for at that time were set in motion 
the great ideas, and the modifications of old ideas, which finally made 
up Judaism ; but (2) the time in which the distinct establishment and 
substantial development of Judaism took place falls within the two 
centuries of Persian supremacy (538-332 B. C.) ; while (3) the cen- 
tury and a half from 332 B. C. to 165 B. C, the period of Greek 
influence, had for its great achievement the final testing and rounding- 
out of Judaism. 

See Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and 
Greek Periods, pp. v-vii ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 
500 f. 

§37. Some of the Most Striking Characteristics of this 
period are these : 

(1) It is the last division of the Old Testament 
period. Is it a climax or an anti -climax? Is it a 
step higher in the development of the true religious 
conception, or is it a step lower than has hitherto been 
taken ? 

Cf. Ezra 1:5. ( 2 ) It is prevailingly priestly in its character, for (a) 

a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; (b) the prophet's 
voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past ; 

Zech. 3:1-7; while (c) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of 

supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli- 
est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as 
king. 

(3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which 
presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the 
history of a church, not that of a state. 

Neh., chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find 

that the great event which characterized this period, the 
42 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43 

event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial 
emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical law by 
Ezra. With this we may compare the giving of the 
Deuteronomic law, in its relationship to the middle 
period (§28). 

§38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of 
the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among 
other, elements which may be taken as directly grow- 
ing out of the exile and leading up to this later 
period : 

(1) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :2g-34; 

v ' J & r Ezek., chap. 18; 

sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut.24:i6. 

personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation 

to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible 

for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance 

with God depends upon himself alone. 

(2) Ezekiel's teaching of the new community, a new Ezek., chaps. 40- 
city in which no government will be needed, for there 

will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge. 
He will bestow upon the people all that they need. 
The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel- 
fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek. 39:1-16; 
Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the c Ezek. 5 i7* 25-30. 
slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage 
in worship, continual worship. The only object of care 
will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will 
be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom 
of God on earth. 

(3)* There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek., chap. 18; 
Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was 
not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any 
particular form of government. 

(4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech. 1:1-6; 
the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their c f. joei 2 : 28, 29. 
utterance were unheeded or rejected. 

(5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek. 8:1; 
for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible cf.Vs. 74': 8 
under the circumstances, viz., public reading of scrip- 
ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna- 
gogues. 



44 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Exod. 20:23— (6) With the book of the Covenant (8 20), and the book 

23:33. VO /' 

of Deuteronomy (§ 25) .which had become the adopted 
code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo- 
Ezek., chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all 
cf. isa. 51 : 17-20. in existence, and all rendered impossible of observance by 
the circumstances of the people, there is seen to be a 
great indefiniteness and uncertainty in the situation, 
which, while confusing, signified most clearly that the 
"Law" was not yet finished, and prepared the minds of 
the people for the more definite and final formulation 
still to be made. 
c/.Ezra 1:2-4; (7) The broad and generous policy of Cyrus and his 

Ezra7:ii"6; successors on the Persian throne, a policy of state and 
religion very different from that of preceding history, as 
well as from that of still later times, made possible in 
the way of progress and growth what otherwise would 
have been impossible. 
Jer. 24: 1-10. (8) The higher character of the Babylonian Jews, 

and the special circumstances of their environment, as 
distinguished from that of the Jews who remained in 
Judah, forms an important factor in the movement 
toward national exclusiveness which is henceforth to be 
so prominent. 
Hag. 2:6-9; (9) The expectations, publicly announced, of Haggai 

and Zechariah that in the political upheavals of the day 
(i. e., the revolts of the Babylonians in 519 and 515 B. C. 
against the Persian rule) deliverance and glory would 
come to Israel ; the embassy of four Jews from Babylon, 
bringing gifts of silver and gold which are made into a 
Zech. 6:9-12. crown for Zerubbabel (not Joshua); and the fact that 
Zech. 3:8. Zerubbabel had been given the name Branch or Sprout — 

all this points to the suggestion that there were many who 
still expected a descendant of David to sit upon Israel's 
throne ; but the hope was impossible of realization because 
(a) the whole trend of events was toward the priestly rule, 
and (b) perhaps the Persian authorities may have interfered 
to prevent an act which would certainly have led to treason, 
^Neh.^cSap'. 6. j ust as they did in the case of the building of the temple. 

See Chkyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, p. 15 ; Kent, 
op. cit., pp. 147 f. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 45 

(10) The residence in Babylon brought the Jews into 
close touch with an elaborate system of sacrifice, the 
most important characteristic of which was the propitia- 
tory idea. This is significant in view of the fact that 
henceforward the greatest possible emphasis will be 

placed upon sacrifice as an atonement, and upon prayer Lev., chap. 16; 

£ /• • Neh. 1:4-11. 

for forgiveness. 

See Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitical 
Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81; 
JASTROW, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 668, 

(11) Because in Babylon there was no chance to offer isa. 58 : 3 ff. ; 

J . Ezra 8: 21; 

sacrifice, such a thing being utterly inconceivable, fasting Neh. 1:4; 

came into great prominence, since "by denying them- Zech. 7 : 3-5. 

selves their ordinary food they gave expression to the 

intensity of their feelings, and at the same time laid 

before Jehovah a gift which could be presented at any 

time and at any place." 

See Kent, op. cit., p. 43 ; Benzinger, article "Fasting," § 6, in 
Encyclopcedia Biblica; Stanton, article "Fasting," §§ lb and 3, in 
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-1 1. 

(12) It was, likewise, because in Babylon the great Ezek.ao: 12-84. 
feast days could not be properly or regularly observed, 

that greater and greater attention was given to the 
observance of the sabbath, for this. could be done any- 
where. The nature of the observance was probably 
much influenced by the customs in vogue in Babylon. 

(13) The removal to another land, and residence in 
that land, took away the narrow conception of a national 
god which had always existed among the masses ; and 
now the time has come when first the people as such 

will accept the great and fundamental doctrine of one isa. 44:6. 
god, i. e., monotheism. But Jehovah, in becoming the Isadoras. 
creator of the world, and the ruler of the universe, will 
not seem to be in as close touch as formerly with his 
people. He will be holy, in the sense of being sepa- 
rated. He will be higher and more majestic ; less fami- isa. 40:12-17. 
liar and more dignified, because greater. 

See Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (=Hibbert 
Lectures, 1892), pp. 228, 268 f.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol. I, pp. 175 f.; Davidson, article "God," §IV, (4), in Hastings' 
Dictionary of the Bible. 



46 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(14) According to the manner in which the individual 
Israelites meet these new and strange conditions they 

Neh. 13 : 15-28. will divide themselves into two classes: (a) those who 
break away from their old religion because of inability to 
adopt a larger faith and a broader conception of God, or 
because of personal advantage gained by giving up the 

Mai. 3:16-18. old; and (b) those who, in spite of calamity and mis- 

apprehension, maintain themselves steadfast and true. 
This means a purging of the people, the growing 
stronger of those who are strong, and the weeding out of 
those who are weak. 

See Kent, op. cit., pp. 221 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 291 ff. 

Hag. 2:3; (15) When it was realized quite clearly that the 

promises of the prophets were not to be fulfilled at the 
time of the return from exile, there was disappointment 

Mai. 2:17. an d despair on every side. Some became indifferent to 

isa. 59:9-15. God, for they put on hi?n the blame for their disappoint- 

ment, Others, the more devout, took the blame upon 
themselves. With full faith in God's ability to do the 
things which he had promised, they reasoned in their 
hearts that this glorious future must have failed'of reali- 
zation because of Israel's sin ; yes, because of their own 
unworthiness this glory was being postponed. They 

Cf. the prophet reasoned further : We, who have sinned and have thus 

isa.°42?il ^25. m made it impossible for the great day of deliverance to be 

ushered in — we must change our ways ; we must become 

Cf. Ps. 15. more holy ; we must increase our piety ; our lives must 

be of such purity that God will be compelled to keep his 
pro?nises. It was this situation and this interpretation 
of it that prepared the way for "the legalism and the 
salvation by works of the later Judaism." 
See Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 155-9= 

§ 39. A Great Reaction Came after the Building of the 
Temple in 516 B.C., which lasted nearly three-quarters of 
a century. Concerning this it will be noted — 
Neh. 5:1-12; (1) That, in all probability, only a few of the Baby- 

Mai! 2:10. Ionian Jews had yet returned; 1 the weak, narrow, and 

1 The question of dates, always a more or less difficult one, is in this case especially 
difficult. Cf. Kent, op. cit., pp. 196 ff.; H. E. Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge 
Bible), pp. xxxviii-xlv; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 36-81 ; C. C. Torrey, The Composition 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4^ 

selfish elements were in control ; the rulers were greedy 
of gain, oppressing the poor. 

(2) There was in the community a strong tendency 
toward skepticism. The so-called "scorners" were in 
the majority, and included in their number not only rulers 
but priests, and these openly expressed doubts as to all 
the religious practices and opinions of the times, e. g., 

(a) weariness of the routine of sacrifice; (d) what real Mai. 1:13. 
benefit comes from serving God? (c) why not just as Mai.3r14.15. 
well worship the heathen gods ? (d) what difference does Mai. 2:17. 
it make whether a man does right or wrong ? 

(3) Under these circumstances the condition of wor- 
ship was greatly degraded. This was seen in — 

(a) The complaint of the priests as to the weariness Mai. 1:13. 
of their occupation. 

(fi) The low character of the high-priests, who were Neh. 13:4-9, 28. 
among the most guilty. 

(c) The readiness of the people to cheat Jehovah in Mai. 1:6-14. 
their sacrifices. 

(d) The attitude of the priests in general toward the Mai. 1:8; 2:8,9. 
entire service, including the sacrifice, so that the whole 
ceremonial came into contempt. 

(<?) The failure of the people to pay their tithes, Mai. 3:8-12. 
so that the support of the entire system was about 
to fail. 

(/) The marriage of the priests into families of outside Neh. 13:23-28; 

Mai. 2 : 10-16. 

nations who served other gods. 

(4) But there still remained the company of " faithful Mai. 3:16-18; 
ones," who feared Jehovah, and were called "the just," 161:6; 113:7. 
"the poor and needy" (cf. above, § $&, ( 14), (15)). 

§ 40. Nehemiah's Coming 444 B. C. Was a Great Event 
in the history of Judaism. 

(1) His work as a reformer and upbuilder of Jerusa- Neh. 1:1— 7:5; 

12 : 27-43. 

lem included — 

(a) The rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem as a pro- Neh. 2:12— 6:15. 
tection against attack, and as a means of separating the 
Jews from their heathen neighbors. 

and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. 51-65; W. H. Kosters AND T. K. 
Cheyne, article "Ezra" in Encyclopedia Biblica; L. W. BATTEN, article "Nehe- 
miah " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. 



48 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Neh., chap. 11. {p) The repopulating of Jerusalem by bringing in 

Jews from the surrounding country to dwell there. 
Neh J 3 :^ -28 ' (c) The prohibition of marriages with heathen peoples 

and the driving out of all foreigners from the Jewish 

community. 
Neh., chap. 5. ^) The restoration to its original owners of all 

property that had been acquired by mortgages and usury, 

and the remission of all interest. 
Neh. 13 -. 15-22. ^) The institution of a stricter observance of the 

sabbath, which had heretofore been freely violated. 

Neh. 13:10-13; ( 2 \ gut in addition to all this he turned his attention 

Neh. 10:32-39. v / 

to the temple and its service. Finding that this was 
being neglected because the Levites were under the 
necessity of working in the fields for their support, he 
took steps to secure the regular payment of the tithes, 
and appointed faithful officials to distribute them to the 
Levites. He also made regulations for the proper 
observance of sacrifices, offerings, and feasts. 

§41. The Work of Ezra, in all probability, followed 

that of Nehemiah, the latter having by his masterful skill 

prepared the way (cf. §40). The steps in his eventful 

career may be summarily classified as follows : 

Ezra 7: 1-9; (1) The journey took place in the seventh year of 

8 : 21-23. 

Artaxerxes, occupied a period of four months, and was 
made without military escort, since Ezra refused to 
manifest distrust in Jehovah's protection by asking the 
aid of Artaxerxes. 
Ezra 7: 15-23; (2) The gifts said to have been offered bv Artaxerxes 

8:24-34. \ J t> J J 

and his princes for the temple at Jerusalem and its service, 
together with the requisition made by the king upon the 
governors of the western provinces and the free-will offer- 
ings of the Babylonian Jews themselves, were of great 
value, and were faithfully guarded and handed over to 
the temple officials. 
Ezra 7: 14-27. (3) The immediate purpose was to establish more 

securely and develop more elaborately the facilities for 
worship in the temple. Matters relating to the service 
and to the temple seem to have occupied the entire 
time and attention of the reformers for a couple of 
months after their arrival. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 49 

§42. The Formal Adoption of the Law took place at Neh., chaps. 

8-10. 
a public assembly of all the people. The method of 

procedure was in general the same as that used when the 
Deuteronomic law was publicly adopted by the nation 
(see § 25). The law was first read aloud in the hearing of 
the people. This produced a sense of sin and short- 
coming on the part of all, and was followed by public con- 
fession. After this a solemn covenant was entered into 
by all the people to observe the requirements of the new 
law, and this covenant was signed by the representatives 
of the people, viz., the princes, priests, and Levites. 
§ 43. The Law as Thus Proclaimed and Accepted — 

(1) Is described in Nehemiah as — 

(a) Prohibiting marriages with the surrounding Neh. 10:30. 
heathen. 

(b) Providing for a strict observance of the sabbaths Neh. 10:31. 
and holy days. 

(c) Enforcing the observance of the sabbatical year, Neh. 10:31. 
with the accompanying remission of all debts. 

(d) Imposing an annual tax of one-third of a shekel Neh. 10:32, 33. 
per capita for the support of the services of the temple, 
including the offerings. 

(e) Arranging for the wood to be furnished for the Neh. 10:34. 
burnt-offerings at stated intervals. 

(/) Enjoining the bringing of all first-fruits and first- Neh. 10: 35-37. 
lings to the priests at the temple. 

(g) Requiring that the people give tithes to the Neh. 10:38. 
Levites in the various cities, and that the Levites bring a 
tithe of these tithes to the temple at Jerusalem. 

(h) Calling for a hearty support of the temple and Neh. 10:39. 
constant faithfulness to it. 

(2) Contains regulations unknown to Deuteronomy, Neh. 10: 313,- 

cf . D6U. X, j CUcip* 

e. g., the requirement that the land lie fallow every sab- 15; 

. Neh. 10:38; 

batical year ; the tax of one-third of a shekel for the tern- cf. Deut. 14: 

pie services ; the arrangement for the provision of 

fire-wood ; and the law concerning tithes, which departs 

widely from the Deuteronomic law. 

(3) Was substantially the body of regulations found 
in Exod., chaps. 25-31 ; 34 : 29 — 40 : 38 ; Leviticus, and 
Numbers ; in other words, the so-called Levitical code. 



22-29 < 26 : 12-15. 



50 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See Kent, op. cit., p. 212; Cheyne, op. cit, pp. 72 f.; Monte- 

FIORE, Op. cit., pp. 315 ff.; J. ESTLIN CARPENTER AND G. HARFORD 

Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 137-41 ; Wellhausen, 
op. cit., pp. 404-10. 

§44. The Significance of This Important Event lies in 
the following points : 
c/.Neh. 10:30, 31 (1) The immediate connection of these new regula- 

with 13 : 15-24 ; 

Ezra 9: 1. tions with the times. They grew out of the effort to 

improve the existing moral and religious condition of 
the people, and they contain the principles that formed 
the basis of the work of reform. 

(2) The fact that, although some additions remained 
still to be made to this code, it was substantially complete. 

(3) The adoption and incorporation into this code 
of the important teachings of the prophets. It presented 
in the concrete and tangible form of specific precepts 
the great general truths that the prophets had long 
endeavored to inculcate. It presented truth and duty 
objectively, and thus met with a greater immediate suc- 
cess than the prophets' work had ever achieved. 

c/.,e.g.,Lev.i6:i (4) The overwhelming preponderance of material in 

— 17 " Q * 22 " I — 

24:9; '25:11— the code relating to service or worship. 

Lev. 14:10-32; (5) The place occupied in it by sacrifice, and the 

Exod'ag^i^a. emphasis (see § 38, (1 o)) placed upon the idea of pro- 
pitiation and forgiveness. 

Neh. 10:37, 38. (6) The great advance made by the priests and Levites ; 

their support is no longer a matter of fitful charity, as it 
was under the Deuteronomic law, but is made a standing 
obligation upon the people, over the discharge of which 
the priests and Levites themselves are given control. 

§45. Another Important Headquarters for Worship, the 
Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim, grew out of this 

2 Kings 17:6, 24- priestly reformation. The Samaritans were a mixed race, 



4i;<r/.25: 11,12. 



w 



hose ancestors were the poorer Israelites left behind 
after the deportation of the more influential classes to 
Assyria at the time of the fall of Samaria, and the Baby- 
lonian colonists who were brought to Israel in place of 
the deported captives. Their religion was thus naturally 
a corrupt mixture of Israelitish and Babylonian ideas and 
practices. They seem to have been influenced by Josiah's 
reformation, at least to the extent of regarding Jerusalem 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 5 1 

as the only lawful place of worship. Hence, when the Ezra, chap. 4. 
effort to rebuild the temple was begun, the Samaritans 
sought to have a part in the work ; but, being denied this 
privilege by the stricter Jews, they seem to have used 
their influence to obstruct the work. Nehemiah's atti- Neh. 218-20. 
tude toward them<was one of uncompromising opposition. 
They, for their part, opposed and hindered him greatly Neh. 4 : 1-23 ; 6 • 1- 
in his work of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. The Neh. 13:28. 
climax of Nehemiah's hostility to them was reached when 
he expelled the grandson of the high-priest from Jerusa- 
lem because he had married the daughter of Sanballat, 
one of the Samaritan princes. The new law, adopted 
when feeling was at such a pitch, of course gave the 
Samaritans no part in the worship at Jerusalem. Conse- 
quently they withdrew and built a temple for themselves 
on Mount Gerizim. In all probability many Jews who 
had contracted heathen marriages went over to the 
Samaritan community, to which they were so closely 
bound by family ties, and thus the community of the 
faithful was freed from many troublesome elements. 

See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 351 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 25-35 ; 
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 498; Guthe, article "Israel," §65, in 
Encyclopedia Biblica. 

§46. The Last Century of Persian Rule (425-332) 

witnessed — 

(1) The return of many Jews from the lands in which 
they had been scattered ; for this return, like the first 
entrance into Canaan, was very gradual. 

(2) The growing influence of those who thus returned 
as over against that of those who had remained. 

(3) Great opportunity at first for free growth and expan- 
sion because of the weakness of the government of Persia. 

(4) Serious calamity, later, because of the contest 
between Egypt and Persia, a contest in which the Jews 
were compelled to take part, and in which they suffered 

as perhaps never before in their history. From psalms Pss.74; 79- 
of this period we learn that the enemy entered Jerusalem 
and the temple itself, in which they set up their 
heathen standards and committed ruthless acts of van- 
dalism, even setting the temple on fire. Not satisfied 



52 



PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 



Exod. 28 : 1-39 ; 
Lev. 16:1-3, 17. 



Numb. 18 : 1-7. 



with this, they burned all the synagogues of the land 
and slaughtered the people mercilessly, so that blood 
ran like water in the streets of Jerusalem. 

See Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. V, pp. 165-206; Cheyne, 
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, pp. 357-63 ; W. Emory Barnes, 
article "History of Israel," §10, in Hastings' Dictionary of the 
Bible; Guthe, article " Israel," § 66, in Encyclopaedia Biblica ; 
Kent, op. cit., pp. 224-8. 

§ 47. The Religio-Political Organization of Judaism, 

which had thus become crystallized, considered as to its 
outer form, was a. hierarchy, a government by priests ; for — 

(1) The chief ruler was the high-priest, who had 
despotic authority over the people, was robed in the 
royal purple, and alone represented the people before 
Jehovah in the holy of holies. 

(2) The ruling aristocracy was made up of priests, 
many of them related to the high-priest. 

(3) The servants of the priests and the sanctuary 
were the Levites. 

(4) The religious and civil functions are performed 
by one class, the priests. There is now no nation ; it is a 
church. 

(5) The scribes come forward in response to the 
need of the times. Since the regulations concerning 
life and worship w r ere now fixed and written down, there 
arose a demand for copies of the written law for the use 
of synagogues and individuals. The scribes who pre- 
pared these copies, being naturally better educated than 
the great majority of the people and spending most of 
their time in the study of the law, soon came to be looked 
to as peculiarly well-fitted to interpret the law to those 
less conversant with it. 2 

See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 392-6. 

§ 48. The Place and Acts of Worship are Adjusted to 
the New Situation. 

(1) The temple more and more came to be the center 
of the whole religious system. The thought of it as the 
place where Jehovah especially manifested his presence 
gave it a peculiar sanctity, so that none but the holy 

2 The scope of the activity of the scribes is well set forth in a saying ascribed to 
Simon the Just (300-290 B. C.) : "Our fathers have taught us three things, to be cau- 
tious in judging, to train many scholars, and to set a fence about the Law." 



Ezra 7:6, 10-12, 

21; 
Eccles. 12:11. 



Pss. 76:1,2; 
79:1. 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 53 

people might enter its precincts. The worst crime of 
which an enemy could be capable was desecration of the 
temple. But, while emphasis was thus laid upon the 
temple, there was growing up alongside of it the synagogue Ps.74:8. 
with a function of a different kind. These were organized 
wherever there were a few Jews settled who wished to 
study the law. They especially supplied the religious 
needs of the many Jews scattered in many lands who 
were unable to make frequent visits to Jerusalem in 
order to participate in the splendid worship of the tem- 
ple. While the temple services centered about sacrifices 
and offerings, the service of the synagogue centered in 
the reading and interpretation of the law. 
See Montefiore, op. city pp. 390 f. 

(2) Sacrifice now took on more and more a propitia- Lev. 6:24— 7:9; 
tory character, being looked upon chiefly as atonement Numb., chaps. 28; 
for sin. The most minute regulations were made as to 

the details of every sacrifice, the manner in which the 
offering must be laid upon the altar, the disposition to 
be made of the fat and the blood, the garments to be 
worn by the officiating priest, etc. It seems as though 
the temple services must have been a constant succession 
of sacrifices. 

(3) Times and seasons received more attention than Lev. 19:3; 
ever before. The sabbath was particularly insisted upon 

as a sign of the covenant between Jehovah and his 
people. The penalty for performing any work on the 
sabbath was death. 

(4) The sabbatical year was now made wider in scope, Lev. 25:1-7. 
so as to include the land itself which was to be allowed 

to lie fallow. Furthermore, every fifty years an addi- 
tional year of jubilee was to be celebrated, thus making Lev. 25:8-55. 
two sabbatical years in succession. At this time all 
Hebrew slaves were to be released, and all land bought 
during the preceding forty-nine years was to revert to 
its original owners. 

(5) The feasts provided for were the Passover and Lev. 23:4-8, 

33-36, 39-44 ; 
Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Tabernacles, the Numb. 28:11 ff., 

26 ff . ; 
New Moon, the Feast of Weeks, the New Year's Feast, Lev. 23:15 ff.; 

Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 

and the Day of Atonement. They were all definitely dated Lev., chap. 16. 



5 4 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

by month and day, and thus were still farther removed 
from their agricultural origin. The Feast of Taber- 
nacles was now celebrated in remembrance of the fact that 
the Israelites dwelt in tents during their journey in the 
wilderness. There was little difference in the manner of 
celebrating the various feasts — the most characteristic 
feature of them all is the endless sacrifices that accom- 
panied them. They were all to a large extent of an expia- 
tory nature ; nevertheless it was felt necessary to devote 
one day per year to the special work of expiation, viz., 
the Day of Atonement. 

(6) The public fasts which had been observed during 
the exile in commemoration of the exile and of the 
disasters connected with it were not incorporated into 
the new law, but seem to have come to an end m Zecha- 
riah's time. That fasting in general was highly esteemed 
as a means of propitiating Jehovah, and frequently prac- 
ticed when occasion seemed to demand it, is clear in view 
Numb 3 2 9:7; of the place given to it in the regulations for the Day of 

n^B'Vx Atonement, and the references to it in Joel and Nehemiah. 
( 7 ) Other acts of worship.- Constant recourse was 
Ezra, chap. 9 ; W/ ^ J , T tv, /-Vn'pf 

Neh.i: 4 -ii; had tQ prayer on the part. of pious Jews, lne cniet 

e ^m'; 1 !' 5-38; oV of er seem t0 have been deliverance from 

dangers, help in trouble, and forgiveness of sin with 
resulting bestowal of blessings. 
N eh. 7 :x;xx: 23 ; That singing and music occupied a large place m 

Jwr 9, 42 ' worship is clear from the allusions to the singers in con- 
nection with the dedicatory exercises held when the wall 
of Jerusalem was completed, and from the large number 
of psalms that come from this period (see § 50). 

Soothsaying and magic seem to have been still prac- 
Lev - 20:6 ' 27, ticed, but were prohibited by the law, as was also necro- 

mancy. . , 

»,..:.■.«.«; Vows were recognized and provided for by the law. 

27 :1 " 8 ' 840 The Full Significance of This New Regime is 

hard to grasp. The comfort afforded by it to the people 
cannot be questioned. This strange system, which seems 
to us in our love of freedom, so distasteful, was, after 
all the highest result yet achieved in the development 
of Israel's religion. It was based upon the doctrines 



PS. 84:1, 2- 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 55 

of the prophet-priests, viz., individualism and solidarity 
Its keynote was monotheism. Its God was a God whose Lev.x 9 i- 4 - 
supreme attribute was holiness, and who expected in 5;J?4f !x5 ' 
every individual of the sacred community a holiness like 
his own. The underlying thought was the overwhelm- 
ing sense of sin. Now, for the first time, the preaching 
of the prophets through all the centuries has found its 
place in the hearts of the people. The prayers are Pss . Io6:6 _ 47; 
prayers of confession. God has grown greater, and man ?3 °' 
more humble in the sight of God. God is the God of 
the whole world. Israel is a company of individuals in 
a sacred community. Every act of life must be holy. 
The religious feeling is deeper than ever before and 
more universal. Men are anxious. The people, bur- 
dened as they are with their anxiety, smitten as they 
are in their consciousness of sin, humbled by their 
ideal of God, take upon themselves the severest yoke 
ever placed by religion upon the neck of man. A serv- 
ice worthy of this supreme God must be regulated in its 
most minute details. The service everywhere presents 
the thought of sin. Sacrifice is now the great act, and 
is no longer accompanied by gladness and joy. It rep- Lev 4 .x_ 6 . 7 
resents purification from sin. It is « the chief symbol 
and the great mystery of their faith." To be holy one Lev chap „. 
must wash; one must touch no unclean thing; one must £&££?! 
not eat what is unclean ; one must observe the sabbath 
the day of God; and all these acts of worship cultivated 
the spirit of exclusiveness. Then followed that haughty 
spirit. "Man who would go up to the hill of Jehovah Lev „•«-* 
must now be the one who has not eaten shellfish or 
pork, nor opened his shop on the sabbath, nor touched 
a dead body, nor used a spoon handed him by a gentile 
without washing it." We know the outcome of all this 
as it is shown us in the New Testament, but "it kept the 
people separate from the world and constant to their 
faith, and made them endure the greatest temptations 
and the severest persecutions, and so enabled them to 
preserve the precious treasure committed to them until 
the time should come when the world was to receive it 
from their hands." 



$6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

See Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 73-81; Kent, op. cit., pp. 213 f., 
249 ff.; Montefiore, <?/. «V., pp. 465-552; Wellhausen, op. cit. t 
p. 497. 

§ 50. The Psalms of the Second Temple are now Written, 

and one fails to see the deeper meaning of all this if he 
forgets that in this period the greatest number of the 

Pss. 118; 121; 67. psalms were written. The old prophetic ideas, which the 
people in the times of the prophet had refused to accept, 
are now a part of the people's creed and are sung by 

Pss. 95; 46. them with joyous hearts in the congregation. Sacred 

Pss. 122; 1385145; song becomes preeminently an act of worship. The 
worship of Jehovah in this act is as joyous and as delight- 
ful as it maybe sad and grewsome in the act of sacrifice, 

Pss. 143:10; 139; In these very days, when such emphasis is laid upon the 

I2S 

letter of the law, the service of song teaches that to obey 

Jehovah and to trust in him, to surrender one's self 

absolutely to him, is the end of all religion. Whatever 

may be the experience of life, it finds expression in these 

psalms ; whether it be " penitence, intellectual perplexity, 

Pss. 102; 91; 130; domestic sorrow, feebleness, loneliness, the approach 

Pss. 109; 116; 123. . , . . . . . 

or death, the excitement of great events, the agony of 

persecution, or the quiet contemplation of nature." 
For each experience there is expression, and the heart- 
utterances which formed a part of the worship of this 
period, sung, to be sure, in the midst of the bleating of the 
lambs which are being slaughtered for the sacrifice, have 
proven to be the most satisfying utterances for the soul, 
in its deepest communion with God, which have ever 
reached the heart of man. The ritual may have been 
narrow, but the heart of every Jew was free. He was 
restrained outwardly, but no such restraint hindered him 
in the working of his mind and heart. Here was con- 
tradiction, to be sure, but contradiction no greater than 
is found in the tendency to substitute the synagogue for 
the temple, which now exhibits itself in spite of the 
exclusiveness that was the end and the result of the 
Levitical system. 
§51. The Greek Period of Influence, 332-165 B. C, added nothing 
essential to the content or form of service. It furnished the test of 
Judaism for which the work of Ezra and Nehemiah had been an uncon- 
scious preparation. In the crisis through which the true religion was 



WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 57 

to pass the form given to it by these men was of inestimable value. 
In the words of Cornill : 2 

That the development of Judaism took this special direction was a neces- 
sity of the history of religion. 

For the heaviest struggle of Judaism still awaited it ; the struggle against 
Hellenism. One hundred and twenty-five years after Ezra, Alexander the 
Great destroyed the Persian empire and made the Greeks the sovereign peo- 
ple of the eastern world. Through this a profound transformation was begun, 
which spread with startling rapidity and irresistible might, and led finally to 
the denationalizing of the East. That which the Assyrian had undertaken 
by brute force the Hellenes surmounted by the superior power of mind and 
culture. Greece destroyed the nationalities of the East by amalgamating 
them with itself and conquering them inwardly. Only one eastern nation 
withstood the process of dissolution, yea, more, absorbed into itself the good 
of Hellenism, and thus enriched and strengthened its own existence ; and that 
was the Jewish. If it were able to do this, it was because Ezra and Nehe- 
miah had rendered it hard as steel and strong as iron. In this impenetrable 
armor it was insured against all attacks, and thus saved religion against 
Hellenism. And, therefore, it behooves us to bless the prickly rind to which 
alone we owe it that the noble core remained preserved. 

With this we may close our rapid survey of the history of the 
development of Israel's worship. In the light of this survey we 
shall next consider the more important special divisions included 
in it, viz., the laws, the histories, and the psalms. 

8 Op. cit., pp. 162 f. 



Paet Thied 



COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES 

OF WORSHIP 

V. Laws and Usages Concerning the Priest. 

VI. Laws and Usages Concerning the Place of Worship. 

VII. Laws and Usages Concerning Sacrifice. 

VIII. Laws and Usages Concerning Feasts. 

IX. Laws and Usages Concerning the Sabbath. 

X. Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean. 

XL Lawsand Usages Concerning Prayer and Related Forms 
of Worship. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST, CONSIDERED COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§ 52. To Speak of the History of "Worship, as It is Presented in the 
Old Testament, is to take for granted (1) that there were periods, (2) 
that these periods differed from each other to a greater or less extent, 
and (3) that there was either growth or decay, or perhaps both. The 
brief survey, just finished, distinguished three such periods, each with 
its peculiar characteristics, and presented what seemed to be a striking 
case of development, i. e., growth from a lower and less complicated 
form of worship to one higher and more complicated. These periods 
were called early, middle, and later. 

§ 53. Each Period Had a Lawbook or Code of Legislation Peculiar to 
Itself, viz.: (1) the Covenant Code (§14, (3)) for the early period, 
(2) the Deuteronomic Code (§27) for the middle period, and (3) the 
Levitical Code (§43) for the later period. Injunctions concerning 
nearly every topic relating to worship are found in each of these codes. 
These injunctions are sometimes couched in language almost the same ; 
in other cases there are to be noted differences (additions or varia- 
tions) of an important character ; in still other cases they are quite 
contradictory. These differences, it is clear, exist because through 
succeeding centuries the people (a) changed their place of abode, 
e. g. } from the desert to Canaan, from Canaan to Babylon, and back 
again ; (p) changed also their form of life, passing from the nomadic to 
the agricultural, and from the agricultural to the more centralized or city 
life ; (c) changed their form of government, passing from a tribal form 
to the monarchical, and from that to a theocratic or hierarchical form; 
(d) came into contact with different nations, from whom much was 
learned, e. g., the Canaanites, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the 
Persians, and the Greeks ; (e) were given great leaders, lawgivers, kings, 
and prophets, through whom, from time to time, new and better ideas 
of God and worship were taught. 

Now, the different codes named above, as they severally appear and 
are adopted by the nation, reflect the onward and upward movement 
of the people toward the great goal of the nation's history, the time 
when Jesus Christ shall come and teach as men had never taught 

61 



62 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

before. These codes, then, are different expressions of the usage and 
law of successive epochs. To understand any special topic connected 
with worship, one must examine systematically what each code con- 
tains on that topic. This is the comparative study of the laws relating 
to worship. 

§ 54. The Constructive Study of a Subject is Possible Only on the 
Basis of the Comparative Study. — It is not the earliest usage in a par- 
ticular case, e. g., a distinction between the priest and the laity, nor the 
latest, that gives us a true idea of Israelitish thought and custom ; it 
is, rather, the latest as growing out of and including, not only the 
earliest, but all the intervening steps between the two. At no one 
time did growth or decay stop ; and it is only when we have the whole 
process before us that we begin to understand its significance. 

§ 55. Side by Side with the Codes We Find in the Hexateuch Also His- 
tories which refer frequently to customs of worship. It is interesting 
to note that each code is imbedded in a separate history; e. g., (a) the 
Covenant Code is a part of a great p?-ophetic history beginning with the 
creation and continuing down to the times of the Judges ; (b) the Deu- 
teronomic Code (Deut., chaps. 12-26) is a part of a history which is 
found, not only in the earlier part of Deuteronomy, but also in some 
places in Joshua, and elsewhere ; while (c) the Priest Code is also closely 
connected with a history which begins with Gen. 1 : 1 and continues 
through Numbers. In studying the subject of worship, it is of interest 
to note what is said in these histories concerning each subject considered. 

§ 56. The Later Histories contained in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, 
and Chronicles give especial attention to the subject of worship. Just 
as the history in the books of Samuel and Kings is written from the 
prophetic point of view, that in these later books is written from the 
priestly point of view (see § 10), and hence gives much information con- 
cerning the institutions of worship as they existed at the time these 
books were written. 

§57. The Prophets Were Always Deeply Interested in Matters of 
Worship; sometimes, as opponents of the ideas and practices existing 
in their day, they were trying to introduce new and better ideas; at 
other times, as allies of the priesthood, they were striving to awaken the 
zeal of the nation in behalf of the worship of Jehovah. In either case 
their writings contain much that is of value in a study of the develop- 
ment of Israel's ideas concerning worship. 

§58. The Priest Code, Manifestly, Is the Great Source of Informa- 
tion upon the subject of worship, because (a) it contains the fullest 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 63 

presentation of each subject; {&) it is from the hands of the priests 
themselves, who were most deeply interested ; and (c) it presents the 
latest stage of growth. But this Priest Code is itself a growth, and 
contains at least four strata of material, each of which represents a 
different age and stage of development. These are : 

1. The Holiness Code, contained in Lev., chaps. 17-26, a body of 
laws which, as the name implies, lays especial emphasis upon the 
thought of the holiness of God and the necessity of corresponding 
holiness on the part of his people. 

2. A collection of priestly teachings in reference to various sacri- 
ficial and ritualistic matters. 

3. A set of miscellaneous materials, such as genealogical lists, 
elaborations of laws, and illustrative narratives. 

4. A historical narrative from the creation up to the settlement in 

Canaan, which forms the basis of the P document, the three preceding 

elements having been incorporated into it. 

See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 6th ed., pp 
126-59; Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 169-91; J. E. Car- 
penter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 121-57. 

§ 59. The Priest of Early Times, that is, as described in (a) the 
Covenant Code ; {b) the historical material of J and E ; (c) the pre- 
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and (d) the 
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances. 1 

1. The only allusion in the Covenant Code. 2 
Exod. 20 : 26. 

1 On the date, character, contents, and limits of these various documents see 
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament ; also J. E. Carpenter 
and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch; W. E. Addis, The Documents of the 
Hexateuch ; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch ; Holzinger, Einleitung 
in den Hexateuch ; Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexateuch" in Encyclopaedia 
Biblica; F. H. Woods, article "Hexateuch" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 
Kuenen, An Historico- Critical Inquiry into the Origin of the Hexateuch ; Well- 
hausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 228-391; Steuernagel, Allgemeine 
Einleitung in den Hexateuch {=Handkommentar zum Alt. Test., I. Abtheilung, 3. Band, 
pp. 249-86) ; W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, "The Pentateuchal Question," in 
Hebraica,Vo\.V, pp. 18-73, 137-89, 243-91 ; Vol. VI, pp. 1-48, 109-38, 161-211 
241-95; Vol. VII, pp. 1-38, 104-42; Vol. VIII, pp. 15-64, I74-243- 

For a discussion of these questions from a different point of view see especially 
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts; cf also Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and 
Structure; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch and Moses and the 
Prophets. 

2 The following references are from the J document : Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12:8; 22 : 13 
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; 19:22; 32:25-29; 4:14-17; 32: iff.; and the following from the E 
document : Exod. 20 : 26 ; 24 : 4-8 ; Deut. 33 : 8-1 1 ; 10:6; Josh. 24 : 33. 



64 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

2. Non-priests frequently do priestly work. 

Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12:8; 22 : 13 ; Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; 24 : 4-8 ; Judg. 13: 19; 
1 Sam. 7:1; 13 : 8-14 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14-18 ; 1 Kings 18 : 30-38. 

3. The story of Micah's priest. 
Judg., chaps. 17 and 18. 

4. The consecration of the priest. 

Exod. 19 : 22 ; Judg. 17 : 5, 12 ; 1 Sam. 7: 1. 

5. The service rendered by the priest. 

1 Sam. 4:4; 7:1; 1 Kings 1 : 34 ; 1 Sam. 21 : 1-9 ; Hos. 4:6; Mic, 
3:11 ; Isa. 28 : 7. 

6. Priests were consulted as soothsayers. 
Judg. 18:5,6; 1 Sam. 23 : 6-13 ; 30 : 7 ff. 

7. The tribe of Levi. 

Exod. 32 : 25-29 ; Deut. 33 : 8-1 1. 

8. Aaron and his descendants. 

Exod. 4 : 14-17 ; 32:1ft'.; Deut. 10:6; Josh. 24 : 33. 

9. The sons of Eli and their behavior. 

1 Sam. 1:3; 2 : 22-25 ; 4:4; 1 Kings 2 : 27. 

10. Elijah and the priests of Baal. 
1 Kings 18 : 19-40. 

11. The prophets' estimate of the priest. 

Hos. 4 : 6-9 ; 5:1; 6:9; Amos 7 : 10-1 7 ; Mic. 3:11; Isa. 28 : 7 

12. The priest's dress and equipment. 

1 Sam. 2:18; Judg. 17:5; 18:14,20; 1 Sam. 23 : 6, 9-12 ; 30:7,8. 

13. The priest's maintenance. 

Judg. 17:10; 18:4; 1 Sam. 2 : 12-17 I 2 Kings 12 : 16. 

14. The high-priest. 

2 Kings 12 : 10 (?). 

§ 60. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. What is the significance of the lack of any reference \o priest in 
the Covenant Code (see § 15, (2))? 

2. What connection is there between this lack of reference and the 
fact that laymen in early times acted as their own priests ? Is there 
evidence that in cases where non-priests offered sacrifice they were doing 
so (a) through regularly appointed priests, or (b) by special diviDe 
authority ? 

3. Consider from the story of Micah's priest (a) the character of 
the times, (b) the existence of idolatry, (c) the place of the priest 
(</.§i6,(2)). 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 65 

4. How early and in what way were priests set apart or consecrated ? 

5. Formulate a list of the various functions performed by the priest 
in those days. 

6. To what extent did people consult the priest about the ordinary 
affairs of life ? Cf. the case of Samuel (1 Sam. 9 : 6 ff., 19 f.). 

7. With what events and in what connection do the references to 
the tribe of Levi in this period appear ? 

8. Trace the line of Aaron as it is indicated down to later times. 
What, according to the tradition, was Aaron's official relation to Moses ? 

9. From the story of Eli's sons, point out (a) the basis of their 
right to be priests, (6) their functions as priests, (c) the various ways in 
which they abused their office. 

10. Consider, in the story of Elijah and the priest-prophets of 
Baal, (a) the significance of the large number of prophets of Baal, (b) 
the non-priestly character of Elijah. * 

ii. Enumerate, one by one, the shortcomings of the priests which 
are criticised by the prophets, and consider whether this state of things 
owed its existence (a) to a growing formality and emptiness of the 
Israelitish religion, or (b) to the influence exerted on the Israelitish 
religion by the neighboring religion, which was very sensual in its 
character, or (c) to the fact that now for the first time the prophets are 
holding up these high ideals, the priest-practice in Israel, as among 
other nations, having always been upon a low plane. 

12. Consider the references to the priests' dress and equipment, 
and explain particularly the ephod, the Urim, and Thummim. 3 

13. What evidence is there that the priest in this period had any 
special perquisites or any regular maintenance ? 

14. How much may fairly be inferred as to the functions and 
authority of the high-priest in this period ? 

3 See the article " Ephod," by G. F. Moore, in Encyclopedia Biblica; the article 
" Ephod," by S. R. Driver, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; van Hoonacker, 
Le Sacerdoce levitique, pp. 370 ff.; Konig, Religious History of Israel, pp. 107 ff.; G. F. 
Moore, Judges, p. 381; Konig, Hauptprobleme, pp. 59-63 ; Foote, "The Biblical 
Ephod," in Johns Hopkins University Circulars, May, 1900. On "Urim and Thum- 
mim" see Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1893); Kirkpatrick, The First Book of 
Samuel (Cambridge Bible Series), pp. 217 f.; Kalisch, Exodus, p. 544; Wellhau- 
SEN, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 394 f.; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament 
in the Jewish Church, 2d ed., p. 292, note i; T. Witton Davies, Magic, Divina- 
tion and Demonology, p. 75 ; Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge Bible Series), 
p. 33 ; NOWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 93 f.; Benzinger, 
Hebr'dische Archdologie, pp. 382, 407 f.; Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestament- 
lichen Priesterthums untersucht, pp. 26 f.; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, 
pp. 156, 471-3, 505 f., 517 f. 



66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§61. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid- 
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in Early Israelitish History," 
observing the following suggestions : (i) include only what can be 
corroborated by references to the literature of this period (see above); 
(2) use great caution in making general statements upon the basis of 
few facts ; (3) remember that much may be gained by ascertaining what 
did not exist. 

§62. The Priest of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described (a) 
in the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the 
books of Samuel and Kings, and (c) by the prophets of the Deuter- 
onomic period. 4 

1. The Levites, that is, the priests, become a distinct class. 

Deut. 10:8; 18 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 2S ; Jer. 1:18; 8:1; 13:13; 23 : 33 f.; 
26:7 f., 11, 16; 28: i, 5 ; 33 :2i ; 34: 19. 

2. The service rendered bv " the priests the Levites." 

Deut. 10 :8 ; 21 : 5 ; 33:8-10; 26 : 3 ff. ; 27:14; 17:18; 31:9; 17:8, 
9, 12 ; 19:17; 20 : 2 ; 24 : 8 ; Jer. 18 : 18. 

3. The prophets' estimate of the priest. 

Jer. 2:8; 5:31; 6: 13 ; 14: 18; 23: 11 ; 32 132; Zeph. 3: 4. 

4. A later view of the wickedness of Eli's sons. 

1 Sam. 2 : 27-36. 

5. The relative authority of priest and prophet. 
Jer. 29:25 f.; 5 131 ; 20: 1 £f. ; 11 : 18-23; cf. 1 ;i. 

6. Differences of rank within the priestly order. 

2 Kings 23 : 4, 8, 9 ; Jer. 52:24: 29 : 25 f .; 19:1: Deut. 18 : 6 f. 

7. Maintenance of "the priests the Levites." 
Deut. 10.9; 12:12; 18 : 1-8 ; 14 : 27, 29. 

8. Residence of priests. 

Deut. 18 : 6, 7 ; Jer. 1:1 ; cf. 11 :2i, 22; 32 :6 ff.; Jer. 29 : 1 . 

9. Priests consulted as soothsavers. 
Deut. 33:8. 

§63. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the circumstances which, ordinarily, would encourage 
the building up of a special priest class. What connection existed 
between the centralization of worship in Jerusalem (§27, (2) ; cf. Deut., 
chap. 12) and the growth of a special class of priests? What is 
implied in the constantly recurring phrase " the priests the Levites " 

4 References printed in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in 
Deuteronomv. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 67 

{cf. Deut. 17 : 18; 18 : 1 ; 21 : 5 ; 27 : 9; 31 : 9)? Does it mean {cf. Deut. 
10 : 8) that all priests were Levites and all Levites priests ? 

2. Formulate the different functions which together made up the 
service of "the priest the Levite," distinguishing between regular and 
special functions. Consider the difference between the work of the 
prophet, the wise (man), and the priest (Deut. 18 : 18; Jer. 18 : 18). 

3. What, according to the prophets, is the priest's attitude toward 
Jehovah and the true religion ? 

4. Compare the later view (1 Sam. 2 127-46) of the wickedness of 
Eli's sons with the former (1 Sam. 2 : 12-17, 22-2 5)> note the points of 
change, and consider to what extent this is in harmony with Deuter- 
onomic representations. 

5. Recall the authority of the prophet {a) in the days of Saul, 
David, Solomon ; (3) in the days of Elijah and Isaiah ; and (c) consider 
to what extent, in the days of Jeremiah, the prophet had lost authority, 
while the priest had gained it. 

6. Indicate the extent to which differences of rank had come to 
exist among the priests, and the significance of this fact. 

7. Enumerate very accurately the sources of income and main- 
tenance which were enjoyed by "the priests the Levites." 

8. Were there special places of residence assigned to " the priests 
the Levites"? Did priests own property? 

9. Is there anything additional to be said about the use of Urim 
and Thummim ? 

§64. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid- 
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in the Middle Period of Israelitish 
History" — that is, the so-called Deuteronomic period — discussing par- 
ticularly (a) the class system, (b) the higher position now occupied, 
(c) the functions, {d) the maintenance provided by law. 

§ 65. The Priest as Described by Ezekiel. 

1. Ezekiel himself was a priest. 
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14. 

2. Priesthood was limited to the sons of Zadok. 

Ezek. 44: 15 f.; 40:46; 43 = I9» 24-27; 44:6-31 ; 48:11. 

3. The priest's dress. 
Ezek. 42 : 14 ; 44 : 17-19. 

4. Special "holiness" was required of priests. 
Ezek. 4:14; 44:20-22,25-27,31. 

5. Service rendered by priests. 

Ezek. 44 : 1 1, 14, 15, 16, 23 f. ; 40 : 46 ; 43 : 2I » 2 4. 2 7- 



68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. Residence of priests. 

Ezek. 48 : 10-14 ; 42 : 13 f.; 46 : 19-24. 

7. Maintenance of priests. 
Ezek. 42 : 13 f.; 44 : 28-30. 

§ 66. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the significance of the fact that Ezekiel, and also Jere- 
miah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi — all the later prophets — were 
priests. Note that Ezekiel preached his visions of Israel's glorious 
future after the fall of Jerusalem. Consider the circumstances which 
led him to foresee and proclaim a system so exclusively ecclesiastical. 

2. What limitation of the priesthood does he introduce, and why? 
In what respect is this an advance upon the Deuteronomic usage ? 

3. Consider the regulations made concerning the priest's dress; 
what was their purpose ? 

4. Enumerate the particular requirements made of the priests which 
were intended to mark their holiness, and show, in each case, how this 
was to be secured. In what sense is the word " holy " to be understood ? 

5. Indicate in what particulars the service required of the priest in 
Ezekiel's code differs from that of the Deuteronomic Code (§62, (2) ); 
and show the principles underlying these changes. 

6. What was to be the place of the priests' residence, and its 
extent ? The meaning of the word " oblation " ? 

7. Prepare in detail a list of the items mentioned which should 
serve as the maintenance of the priest. Is there any variation from 
those mentioned in Deuteronomy ? 

§67. Constructive Work. — Prepare a paper showing how the priest, 
as seen in Ezekiel's vision, differed from the priest of the Deutero- 
nomic times. 

§ 68. The Priest of the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the 
laws of the Levitical Code, (b) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the 
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles. 3 

1. Distinction between priests and Levites everywhere presupposed. 
Numb. 4 : 1-15, 19; 8:14-26; 18:1-7; I 7 :i_II J 25:10-13; 1 Chron. 
6:49-53- 

2. Special holiness required of priestly class. 
Lev. 21 : 1-9, 17-23; 22:1-8; 10:6; Exod. 30:19. 

3. Service rendered by priests. 

Lev. 10 : 8-1 1 ; Numb. 4 :4-i4, 16 ; Lev. 16 : 32; 6:20-22; Hag. 2 : 1 1-13; 
Mai. 2:4-7; Numb. 18:1-7; 27:21; 2 Chron. 19:8, n. 
s References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 69 

4. Service rendered by Levites. 

Numb. 4:1-3. i5» 21-33; 2:17; 3:23-26, 29-32, 35-38; 18:1-7; 
3:5-10; Ezra 6: 20; Neh. 1 1 : 15-18, 22 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 31-48; 15:2; 
2 3 : 27-32 ; 26:20-32; 2 Chron. 5 : 41.; 19:8, 11. 

5. Influence and numbers of priestly class. 

Lev. 16:32; Numb. 4 : 19, 27 f., 33 ; 3:1-4; 4 '-34-49 J 35:25-34; Hag. 
1 : 1, 12, 14 ; Zech. 3 : 1-10 ; 6: 9 ff. (?) ; Ezra 1:5; 2 : 61-63, 70 ; 
3:2, 8-13; 5:2; 6:16; 7:7, 13, 16; 8:15-20, 29 f.; Neh. 
11:15-18,22; 12:1-26; 3:20,22,28; 5:12; 1 Chron. 6 : 1-47 ; 
9:10-34 ; 23: 1-24. 

6. Place and work of the high-priest. 

Numb. 35 : 25-34 ; Lev. 16 : 4-32 ; 6 : 22 ; Exod. 29 : 9 ; Numb. 27 : 21 ; 
Zech. 3 : 1-10 ; 6 : 9 ff . (?); Neh. 13 : 4, 28-30. 

7. Consecration of high-priest. 

Lev. 21 : 10-15 J 6 : 20-22 ; 8 : 12, 14-36 ; Exod., chap. 29 ; Lev., chap. 
9 ; Numb. 20 : 23-29. 

8. Dress of priests. 

Neh. 7 : 70-73 ; Lev. 6 : 10 1; 8 : 1-9, 13, 30 ; Exod., chap. 28; 39 : 1-31 ; 
40 : 13 f • 

9. Residence of priests. 

1 Chron. 6:54-81; Josh. 21:1-42; Numb. 35:2-8; Neh. 11:3; 
Numb. 2:17; 3 : 23-26, 29-32, 35-38. 

10. Maintenance of priests. 

Lev. 22 : 4-7 ; 7 : 35 ; Numb. 3 : 46-48 ; Ezra 7:24; Neh. 1 2 : 44-47 
13:10-14. 

11. Courses of priests and Levites. 

Ezra 6: 18; 1 Chron. 24 : 1 — 26:19; 2 Chron. 5 : 11 f.; 8 : 12-15. 

12. Prophets' estimate of the priests. 

Hag. 2 : 1 1-13 ; Zech. 3:1-10; 6 : 9 ff.; Mai. 1 : 6-10 ; 2 : 4-9 53:3; 
Isa. 61 :6 ; 66: 21 ; Joel 1:9, 13 ; 2 : 17. 

§ 69. Questions and Suggestions. 

i. Is it possible to find anywhere in the post-exilic literature a 
passage in which the words "priest" and "Levite" are synonymous? 
Cf. Deut. (§62, (1)), and consider (a) the circumstances which have 
Led to this differentiation, (b) its significance, and (c) the great change 
which has taken place since the time when everyone might be his own 
priest (cf. §§58, (2); 15, (2)). 

2. What special limitations were imposed upon the priests (Aaron's 
sons) to secure their holiness ? 

3. Enumerate carefully the kinds of service expected of the priests 



JO PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(Aaron's sons), and note how it differs from that required in Deuter- 
onomy of "the priests the Levites." 

4. Enumerate the kinds of service required of the Levites, and note 
the extent to which this service was in older times the work of "the 
priest the Levite." 

5. What are the facts concerning the numbers of the priestly classes 
in this later period ? Are they larger or smaller ? Is their influence 
greater or less ? What is the full significance of these facts ? 

6. What part has the high-priest played in the priestly work of 
earlier times ? What is his place and work at this time? 

7. What are the details of the consecration of the high-priest, and 
their interpretation ? 

8. Is more care now given to the peculiar dress of the high-priest ? 
If so, in what details, and for what reason ? 

9. What special places are set apart for the residence of priests ? 
Consider from various points of view the cities of refuge, noting espe- 
cially the absence of any reference to them as Levitical cities in Deu- 
teronomy (19 : 1-13). 

10. What additions appear to the sources of income of the priests 
and Levites ? Can the priests any longer be classed with the father- 
less and widow as in Deut. 14 : 28, 29 ? 

11. What is to be understood by the classification of the priests 
and Levites into courses and divisions ? 

12. How did the prophet, although himself a priest, estimate the 
priests of his times ? 

§ 70. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of material in §69 write 
a paper on the priest in later Israelitish history, noting especially 
such points as indicate changes in comparison with preceding periods. 

§71. Literature to be Consulted. 

Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXXVI (1865); 
S. I. Curtiss, The Levitical Priests (1877); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History 
of Lsrael (1878), pp. 1 2 1-5 1 ; Kuenen, National Religions and Universal Religions 
(Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 314-17; Green, Moses and the Prophets (1883), pp. 
78-83, 127-31; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus, Part I, pp. 559-659; Schurer, 
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ (1886); Second Division, Vol. I, 
pp. 207-305; W. R. Smith, article "Priest" in Encyclopcedia Britannica (1889); 
Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 
65-70, 1 16-18, etc.; SCHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Lndex; KiTTEL, 
History of the Hebrews (1892), see Lndex; E. H. Plumptre, article "Priest" in 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 2d ed. (1892); Driver, Deuteronomy (International 
Critical Commentary, 1895), see Lndex; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp. 7°» 
183; BRIGGS, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1897), p. 104; Pick, "The Jewish 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 7 1 

High Priests Subsequent to the Return from Babylon," in Lutheran Church Review, 
1898, pp. 127-42, 370-75, 655-64; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria 
(1898), see Index; Toy, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Polychrome Bible, 1899), 
pp. 193 f.; W. R. Harper, "The Priestly Element in the Old Testament as Seen in 
the Laws," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 258-66 ; Duff, Old Testament The- 
ology (1891-1900), see Index; G. A. Cooke, article "Levi" in Hastings' Dictionary 
of the Bible (1900); McCijrdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments ( 1 895-1 901), 
see Index; Walker, " The Levitical Priesthood," Journal of Biblical Literature, 
1900, pp. 124-37 ; Berlin, "Notes on Genealogies of the Tribe of Levi in 1 Chron. 
23-26," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. XII (1900), pp. 291-8; Laidlaw, "The Priest 
and the Prophet," Expository Times, 1900; H. M. Chadwicke, "Ancient Teutonic 
Priesthood," Folk-Lore, Vol. XI (1900), pp. 268-309 ; Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle; 
Studies in the Priesthood and the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901). 

Graf, "Zur Geschichte des Stammes Levi," in Merx, Archiv fiir wissenschaft- 
liche Erforschung des Alien Testamentes, Vol. I (1867), pp. 68-106, 208-36 ; Maybaum, 
Die Entwicklung des altisraelitischen Priesterthums (1880); Smend, Der Prophet 
Ezechiel (1880), pp. 360-62; KiTTEL, "Die Priester und Leviten," in Theologische 
Studien aus Wiirtemberg, Vol. II (1881), pp. 147-69; Vol. Ill, pp. 278-314; Kuenen, 
Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alien Testaments (188 5), Vol. I, pp. 
281 ff.; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887), Vol. I, pp. 152 ff., 468 ff.; Baudis- 
SIN, Die Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889); H. Vogelstein, 
Der Kampf zwischen Priestern und Leviten seit den Tagen Ezechiels. Eine hisiorisch 
kritische Untersuchung (1889); Kuenen, "Die Geschichte des Jahwepriesterthums 
und das Alter des Priestergesetzes " (1889), in Gesammelte Abhandlungen, pp. 465- 
500; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d 
ed. 1899), see Index; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 405-28; 
Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 87-130 ; Marti, 
Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), pp. 44 ff., 50, 72, etc.* H. Boury, Les 
Pretres d" 1 Israel (1898) ; Hummelauer, Das vormosaische Priesterthum in Israel '(1899); 
van Hoonacker, Le Sacerdoce levitique (1899), an d " Les Pretres et les Levites dans 
le livre d'Ezekiel," Revue biblique, 1899, pp. 177-205. 

See also the commentaries of Delitzsch, Dillmann, Holzinger, and Gunkel on 
Genesis ; of Dillmann, Holzinger, and Baentzsch on Exodus ; of Dillmann and 
Baentsch on Leviticus; of Steuernagel and Bertholet on Deuteronomy; and of 
Davidson, Bertholet, and Kraetzschmar on Ezekiel. 

§72. Supplementary Topics . 

1. Consider that the Psalter was the songbook of the temple, and 
from an examination of Pss. 78 : 64 ; 99 : 6 ; 105 : 26 ; 106 : 16, 30 f. ; 
no: 4; 115:10, 12; 118:3; I3 2: 9> l6 ; 133^2; i34:i-3; 1 3S' 1 9 i - 
formulate the thought relating to the priest which is found in the Psalter. 

2. Why do no direct references to the work and life of the priest 
occur in the Wisdom Literature, 1. e., in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 
and Song of Songs ? 

3. Consider briefly the subject of the priest in New Testament 
writings, e. g., Matt. 2:4;8:4; 12:4 f. ; 16:21; 20: 18; 21:15; 26 13; 
27:1; Mark 2 : 26 ; Luke 1 : 5, 8, 9 ; 10:31; 17:14; John 1 : 19; 



J2 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Acts 4: i, 36; 6:7; Heb. 2:17; 3:1; 4 : 14 f. ; 5:1,5 f., 10; 6:20; 
chap. 7; 8: 1, 3 f.; 9 :6 f., 11, 25 ; 10:11, 21 ; 13:11; 1 Peter 2 : 5, 9; 
Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20 : 6 ; etc., and indicate such points of difference, 
as compared with the position and work of the priest in the Old Testa- 
ment, as seem most important. 

4. Compare roughly the place of the priest among the Egyptians, 
the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and differ- 
ence as compared with that of the priest among the Hebrews. 

See W. R. Smith, article " Priest" in Encyclopedia Britannica ; the articles 
" Pontifex" and " Sacerdos " in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and 
Antiquities ; Martha, Les Sacerdoces atheniens. 

5. Consider the original meaning and exact usage of the words 
for priest, in Hebrew "]»13, Greek tepevs, Latin sacerdos. 

Cf. W. R. Smith, article " Priest " in Encyc. Brit., Vol. XIX, p. 746 ; Nowack, 
Hebr. Arch., Vol. IT, pp. 89 f. ; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 
pp. 130 f. 

6. Consider the place of the priest among the Assyrians, the Arabs, 
and the Canaanites, who were closely related Semitic nations, and note 
points of similarity and difference as compared with his place among 
the Hebrews. 

See especially Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria {Index) ; W. R. Smith, 
Religion of the Semites {Index) ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments 
{Index) ; Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical 
Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Cus- 
toms, pp. 249 ff.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff. 

7. Consider the conception which existed among the Israelites that 
their nation was a kingdom of priests (cf. Exod. 19 : 6), the basis of this 
conception, the extent to which it was held, the influence which it 
exerted, and its connection with other Israelitish ideas, e. g., with the 
idea of God, with the idea of the Day of Jehovah, and with their con- 
ception of their relation to the world. 

8. Consider, in general, what may be called the outside functions of 
the priest,/.^., those functions which were not distinctly priestly; e.g., 
his place in war, Deut. 20:2; Numb. 10:1-9; 1 Sam. 4:4, 11; in 
education, Lev. 10 : 11 ; Neh. 8 : 2, 9, 13 ; in administration of justice, 
Deut. 17:8 f., 12; 19: 17; 21:5; in prophecy, Deut. 33:8; Jer. 1:1; 
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14. 

9. From a study of the books of Maccabees prepare a statement 
showing what were the place, the function, the character, the influence, 
the dress, the place of residence, and the maintenance of the priesthood 
about 165 B. C. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 73 

See, e. g., 1 Mace, chap . 2 ; 3 : 45-51 ; 4 : 38, 42 f.; 5 : 6 f.; 7 : 9, 14 ff #> 
20-25, 33"38; io:2of., 32; 11:23-27, 57 f.; 12:5-23; 13:36 ft, 42; 
14 : 20, 23, 27-49 ; 1 5 : 1 £., 6, 21, 24 ; 16 : 1 1 ff., 24 ; 2 Mace. 1 ; 15 ff., 19-36 ; 
2:17; 3:1, 9, 15 f., 21, 32-36 ; 4:7ff.» 24, 29; 11:3; 14 : 3, 7, 13 ; 15:12. 

10. Take up more seriously the general relation of the priest to 
the prophet ; e. g., (a) Was there an early time and a later time when 
the two offices were not clearly distinguished ? (6) What were the 
circumstances, in each case, which led to this lack of distinction ? 
(<;) How far may the priest be said always to have been engaged in 
struggle with the prophet ? (d) What was the relation of each to the 
other (1) in order of time, (2) in order of thought ? 

11. Consider the significance of the priest as a mediator between 
God and the people. What influences led to the idea that this class 
of men could obtain access to God more readily than other men ? 
What was the relation between the growth of the idea of priestly medi- 
ation and the acceptance of larger ideas of God ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP, CONSID- 
ERED COMPARATIVELY. 

§ 73. The Place of Worship in the Early Period, that is, as described 
in (a) the Covenant Code, (b) the historical material of J and E, (c) 
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and(*/) 
the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note 1). 

1. The onl) r reference in the Covenant Code. 1 
Exod. 20 :24 ft. 

2. The patriarchs had sanctuaries in various places, according to 
convenience. 

Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24f.; 28:17, 22; 35:14; Judg. 
20 : 18, 26 ff.; 21 : 4. 

3. A tent of meeting was used as the place for seeking God. 
Exod. 33 : 7-11 ; Numb. 11 : 16 f., 24 f.; 12:4-10; 1 Kings 2 : 28-30. 

4. There was a chest or ark which contained articles emblematic 
of the divine presence. 

Numb. 10 : 33-36 ; Josh., chap. 3 ; Judg. 20 : 27. 

5. There were local shrines, at which offerings were made. 

Exod. 3:1; 20:24; Numb. 23:1-6, 14-17; Judg. 6:18-26; 13:15- 
23; 20:18, 26 ff.; 21:4; 1 Sam. 1:3, 21; 2:14; 3:1-21, 10:8; 
14 : 35 ; 1 Kings 3:4; 18 : 30-38 ; Deut. 27 : 5-7. 

6. In course of time a temple was built for the worship of Jehovah. 
2 Sam. 7:1-7; 24:21-25; 1 Kings 6:1-38; 2 Kings 12:4-16; 
I5'.35*/ 18: 15 f. 

7. The altar was used as a place of refuge, and as such was sacred. 
1 Kings 2 : 28-30. 

8. The prophets make reference to places of worship. 

Amos 2:8; 3: 14; 4 Ml 5 = 5; 7-9, 13; 8:14; 9:1; Isa. 1:12; 6:1, 4; 
8:14; Hos. 4 : 13, 15; 8:1; 9: 4, 8, 15; 10: 8; 12:11; Mic. 3:12. 

§ 74. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider, in reference to Exod. 20: 24-26, (a) the meaning of 
the emphasis laid on earth as the material for the altar; (J?) the reason 

1 The following are J-references : Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:241.; 35:14; 
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 (?); Numb. 11: 16 f.,24 f.; Josh., chap. 3 (in the main); Numb. 23: 1-6, 
14-17 (?). The following are E-references : Gen. 28:17, 2 4; Exod. 20:24 ft.; Numb. 
12:4-10; 10:33-36; Exod. 3:1; Deut. 27:5-7. 

74 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 75 

for objection to stone as a material ; (c) the reason for objection to 
steps ; and (d) the general primitive character of the whole regulation. 

(#§15.) 

2. What connection was there between this primitive form of the 
altar and the custom of the patriarchs to build an altar wherever they 
pitched their tents ? (Cf. § 15 (1) .) 

3. Consider the occasions on which reference is made to the tent 
of meeting, and note the uses made of it. 

4. Was the use made of the ark or chest one which elevated Israel, 
or one which, upon the whole, encouraged a low conception of God ? 

5. Was there anything to indicate that this or that place should 
be used as a shrine or place of worship ? Was there danger that in the 
use of these widely scattered shrines corrupt practices might be intro- 
duced ? (Cf. §18(1).) 

6. What were the political and social factors that were connected 
with the building of the temple ? What immediate effects upon wor- 
ship might be expected to follow? (Cf. § 17 (1) (d) .) 

7. On what principle did the use of the altar as an asylum or place 
of refuge rest ? Was this a usage among other nations ? 2 

8. What impression does one gather from the references made by 
the prophets to places of worship ? 

§ 75. Place of Worship in the Middle Period, that is, as described in 
(a) the laws of Deuteronomy, (b) the utterances of the Deuteronomic 
prophets, and (c) the Deuteronomic histories. 

1. Air local sanctuaries are prohibited. 3 

Deut. 12 : 2-4, 13, 17 ; 16 : 5 ; 2 Kings 23 : 1-20. 

2. Jerusalem is the only authorized place for worship. 

Deut. 12:5-8, 11, 12, 14, 18, 26 f.; 14:23-26; 15 : 19 f.; 16:2, 5-7, 
11, 15 1; 26:2 ; 1 Kings 12 : 25 — 13 : 6 ; 21:7; 22 : 3-8. 

3. The temple at Jerusalem becomes the supreme court of justice. 
Deut. 17 :8ff. 

4. The ark is the receptacle of the two stone tables of the law. 
Deut. 10 : 1-5, 8. 

5. The prophets' teaching concerning the temple. 

Ter. 7 : 1-5, 10-1 5 ; 12:7; 17 : 12, 26 ; Zeph. 3:4; Hab. 2 : 20. 

2 Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 148 f.; G. F. Moore, article 
".Asylum" in Encyclopcedia BibJica; J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism and 
Exogamy," Fortnightly Review, April, 1899; Stengel, article "Asylon" in Realen- 
cyclopddie der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft ; Barth, De Asylis Graccis. 

3 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron- 
omy. 



76 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. The destruction of Solomon's temple. 
2 Kings 25 :g, 13-16. 

§ 76. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the circumstances which, in the course of centuries, led 
to the prohibition of local sanctuaries. What was to be gained by this 
revolution in practice ? (Cf. § 28 (3).) 

2. What must have been the sociological changes which followed 
the centralization of worship in one place, e. g., its effect on commerce ; 
on the general intelligence of the people ; on the relative position of 
men and women ; on habits of life ? (Cf. § 28 (7).) 

3. What would naturally follow such a change of practice in the 
relative desirability of city and country life, and what would be the 
effect upon Jerusalem as the center of political and judicial life? 

4. Consider the material of which the chest was made and the use 
to which it was put. 

5. Note how in this period the temple had fallen into disrepute in 
the opinion of the prophets, and why this happened. 

6. Consider the details and the significance of the destruction of 
Solomon's temple. 

§ 77. The Place of Worship in Ezekiel. 

1. There is evidence of the existence of irregular altars. 
Ezek. 6:3, 4, 6, 13. 

2. The temple at Jerusalem is represented as the only lawful 
sanctuary. 

Ezek, 20 : 40. 

3. The temple is desecrated by those who profane its use. 
Ezek. 8:3-18; 23: 3 8f.; 44:6-8. 

4. Feeling toward those who took part in the destruction of the 
temple. 

Ezek. 25: 3. 

5. The future temple. 

Ezek. 37 126-28; 40: 5 — 43: 17; 44:9; 45 :3; 46 :i-3; 46: 19-24; 
48:8 f., 21. 
§ 78. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider the fact that at so late a time as that of Ezekiel there 
still existed irregular altars, and what was involved in this fact. 

2. Note Ezekiel's statement as to the proper place of worship in 
the future (cf. § 31 (a)). 

3. What were the prophet's feelings as to the abuse of the temple 
in his times ? 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP JJ 

4. Consider the relation of Ezekiel's temple (/. <?., the temple of 
his vision) to that of Solomon, (a) architecturally, (b) in the promi- 
nence it is to occupy in the routine of worship. 

§ 79. The Place of Worship in the Later Period, that is, as described 
(a) in the laws of the Levitical Code, (3) by the priestly prophets, and 
(c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 

1. Worship may be conducted only at one central sanctuary. 4 
Lev. 17:1-9; Exod. 29 : 42-45 ; 2 Chron. 11:16; Neh. 8:16; cf. 
Isa. 19 : 19. 

2. Ancient sanctuaries are condemned. 

Lev. 26 : 27-31 ; Josh. 22 : 9-34 ; Isa. 27 : 9; 1 Chron. 21: 28 f.; 2 
Chron. 1 : 1-5 ; 32 : 12 ; 33 : 17. 

3. Description of the tabernacle and its furnishings. 

Exod. 25 : 8 — 27:19; 35:4 — 40:38; Numb. 8:1-4; Exod. 27 : 20 f . ; 
Lev. 24 : 1-4 ; Numb. 7: 1-83. 

4. Description of the ark. 

Exod. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9 ; 2 Chron. 1 : 1-5. 

5. The building of Solomon's temple. 

1 Chron. 17 : 1 £f.; 21:15 ft.; 2i:28f.; 22:6£f.; 23: iff.; 28:1-3 
1 1-21 ; 2 Chron. 2 : 1 — 5 : 1 ; chaps. 6 and 7. 

6. The building of the second temple. 

Ezra 1 :2ff.; 2 : 68 ; 3 : 8— 13 : 5 12-5 ; 5 :6 ff.; 6 : 3 £f., 14 £f.; 7 : 19-23 

7. A later view of the place of the tabernacle in religious life. 
Numb. 9 : 15-23. 

8. Later views of the place of Solomon's temple in Israel's wor- 
ship. 

2 Chron. 20 : 28 ; 24:4-15; 27:2!.; chap. 29. 

9. The sanctuary as the place of God's self-manifestation. 
Exod. 25 : 22 ; 29 : 43 ; Numb. 16:41 ff.; Mai. 3:1; Numb. 7 :89. 

10. The altar of burnt-offering. 

Lev. 1:10 ff.; 6:9-13; Numb. 16:36-40; 7:84-88. 

11. The prophets' attitude toward the sanctuary. 

Isa. 56 : 7 ; 60 : 7 ; Hag. 1 : 2-4, 7 f.; 2 : 3, 9 ; Zech. 1:16; 4:9; 
6:12-15; 8:9; I4:i6ff.; Mai. 3 : 1 ; Mic. 4 : 1-4 ; Joel 1:9,131". 
16 ; Dan. 8:11; 9:17; 11:31. 

12. Holiness of the sanctuary. 

Lev. 26:2; 19:30; 8:iof.; Numb. 3:31 f.; 4:4-15; Neh. 6:10 f.; 
13 : 4 ff.; 2 Chron. 33 : 4, 7, 15 ; 36:17 ; Dan. 8:11 ; 9:17 ; 11:31. 

4 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 



78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 80. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Note that what was represented as a matter of reform in the 
middle period, viz., the restriction of worship to a single central 
sanctuary, now appears as a fundamental principle, everywhere taken for 
granted. 

2. Consider the attitude of writers of this period to the sanc- 
tuaries which had existed in earlier times. 

3. Note (a) the great detail with which the tabernacle is described; 
(b) the elaborate character of the tabernacle from an artistic point of 
view ; and consider whether this description is to be taken (1) literally, 
a tent of this kind having actually existed in the earliest times, or (2) as a 
piece of splendid idealization similar in some respects to Ezekiel's 
vision. What is involved in each of these propositions? 

4. What, in general, was the ark, and what, in particular, was the 
purpose it was intended to serve? 

5. Compare the references in Chronicles to the building of Solo- 
mon's temple with those in Kings (§73 (6)), and classify the results of 
the comparison. 

6. Consider in the case of the second temple (a) the date of its 
erection ; (p) its relative size and character in comparison with the 
first ; (c) the special circumstances under which it was built. 

7. What was the later view of the place of the tabernacle in Israel's 
religious life, as seen in Numb. 9: 15-23? 

8. Consider later views also as to the place of Solomon's temple in 
Israel's worship. 

9. To what extent was Israel's God believed to use the sanctuary 
as a place for manifesting his presence? 

10. What was the altar of burnt-offering and its peculiar function? 

11. How did the later prophets regard the sanctuary and its service? 

12. What is meant by the holiness of the sanctuary, and in what 
did this consist ? 

§81. Literature to be Consulted. 

James Fergusson, article "Temple " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) ; 
Ewald, The Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 1 17-30 ; Kuenen, 
The Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 96-100, 241 f., 256-60, 305 
£., 328 ff., 334-9, 390-95 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp. 
250-58; Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services as They Existed in the 
Time of Jesus Christ (1874); Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. 
" Sacred Springs, etc.;" Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (j 878), 
pp. 1 7-5 1; Conder, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp. 75 
ff.; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (1st ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP jg 

"Sanctuaries;" H. P. Smith, " The High Place," The Hebrew Student, 1883, pp. 
225-34; CONDER, Heth and Moab (1883), chaps, vii, viii; Perrot AND Chipiez, His- 
tory of Art in Phoenicia (1885) ; E. C. Robins, The Temple of Solomon (1887); Conder, 
Syrian Stone Lore (l88j), pp. 42 f., 70; KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, 
transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " Robertson, Early Religion 
of Israel { 1889), see Index, s. v. "Sanctuaries," "Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; W. 
R. Smith, article "Temple" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889); W. R. Smith, 
Religion of the Semites (1st ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 140-212; H. Sully, The Tem- 
ple of EzekieTs Prophecy (1889); Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in fudcea 
(1890); J. Pollard, "On the Baal and Ashtoreth Altar Discovered .... in Syria," 
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, 1891, pp. 286 ff.; Duff, Old Testa- 
ment Theology (1891-1900), see Indexes, s. v. " Altar," "Place," " Sanctuary," etc.; 
Schultz, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. " Sanctuary," " Tabernacle," 
"Temple," etc.; C. Balling, Jerusalem's Temple (1892); Montefiore, Religion of 
the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index, s. v. " High Places," "Temple ; " J. Strong, 
"The Tabernacle," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 270-77; Menzies, History 
of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the 
Monuments, Vols. I— III (1895-1901), see Index, s. v. "Temple ; " Driver, Deuteron- 
omy (1895), PP- xliii-li; W. G. Moorehead, Studies in the Mosaic Institutions (1896), 
pp. 31-90; Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (1896), pp. 1-164; Wiedemann, 
Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), pp. 200-206; H. B. Greene, " Hebrew 
Rock Altars," Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 329-40 ; A. Buchler, "The Fore- 
Court of Women and the Brass Gate in the Temple of Jerusalem," Jewish Quarterly 
Review, 1898, pp. 678-718 ; J. A. Seiss, "The Great Temples at Baalbec," Lutheran 
Church Review, 1898, pp. 27 1-93 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia ana Assyria (1898), 
see Index, s. v. "Temples;" G. C. M. Douglas, "Ezekiel's Temple," Expository 
Times, 1898, pp. 365 ff., 420 ff., 468 ft., 515-19; A. S. Kennedy, article "Altar" 
in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); C. Schick, "Remarks on the Taber- 
nacle Controversy," Palestine Exploration Eund Quarterly Statement, 1898, pp. 241-3; 
Em. Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 164-71; 
A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (1899), pp. 246 ff.; W. E. 
Addis, article "Altar" in Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); W. C. Allen, article "High 
Place" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1899); Benson and Gourlay, The 
Temple of Mut in Asher, etc. (1899) ; T. F. Wright, " Was the Tabernacle Oriental ?" 
Journal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 195-8; Th. G. Soares, "Ezekiel's Temple," 
Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 93-103 ; S. I. Curtiss, "The High Place and 
Altar at Petra," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1 900, pp. 35 1— 5 '■> L. 
W. Batten, " The Sanctuary at Shiloh," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX 
(1900), pp. 29-33; G. Allen, "Sacred Stones," Fortnightly Review, January, 1900; 
Stibitz, " The Centralization of Jehovah Worship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, 
January, 1900; John Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle : Studies in the Priesthood and 
the Sanctuary of the few s (1901); G. F. Moore, article "High Place" in Encyclo- 
pcedia Biblica (1901). 

Ba.hr, Der salomonische Tempel, mit Beriicksichtigung seines Verhdltnisses zur 
hebrdischen Architektur iiberhaupt (18 48); Merz, article " Tempel " in Real-Encyklopddie 
fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1st ed. 1854-68, 2d ed. 1877 ff.) ; Balmer- 
Rinck, Des Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1858); Kamphausen, " Bemer- 
kungen liber die Stiftshutte," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1858, pp. 97-121 ; 



80 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

1859, pp. 110-20; Fries, "Zu Kamphausen's Bemerkungen iiber die Stiftshutte," 
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1859, pp. 103-10; Popper, Der biblische Bericht 
iiber die Stiftshutte (i862);Riggenbach, " Die mosaische Stiftshutte : Selbstanzeige," 
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1863, pp. 361-8 ; H. Pierson, De heilige steenen 
in Israel (1864 ff.) ; H. Oort, "De heiligdommen van Jehovah te Dan en te Bethel voor 
Jerobeam I.," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1867, pp. 285-306; Duhm, Die Theologie der 
Propheten (1875), pp. 312-20 ; Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 
Vol. II (1878), pp. 143-269; Kuhn, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der Vollen- 
dungszeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1882, pp. 601-88; Kohlbrugge, 
Die Stiftshiitte und ihre Gerdthe (1882); Stade, "Der Text des Berichtes iiber 
Salomos Bauten, I K6. 5-7," Zeitschrift fur die altiestamenthche Wissehschaft, 1883, 
pp. 129-77; Smend, " Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der 
alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740 ; 
Schurer, article " Tempel Salomo's" in Riehm's Handwdrterbuch des biblischen Alter- 
thufns (1884); H. PAILLOUX, Monographic du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 325-43, 446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 ff., 
113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidenthums (1887), pp. 42-60, 
98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos u. s. w. (1887); O. 
Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. Schouten, De 
tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888); C. Chipiez et G. Perrot, Le temple de 
Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Iibanon, restitues d^apres Ezechiel et le livre des Rois 
(1889); F. v. Andrian, Der Hbhenkult asiatischer und europaischer Volker (1891); 
Piepenbring, " Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de This- 
toire des religions, Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E. de Broglie, "La loi de 
l'unite de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congres scientifique international 
des catholiques, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Reli- 
gion (1897), pp. 27-31, 98-103; Smend, lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions- 
geschichte (isted. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Hebraische Archdologie 
(1894), pp. 243-9,364-404; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), 
Vol.11, pp. 1-86; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see 
Index, s. v. " Tempel ; " H. A. Poels, Le sanctuaire de Kirjath-Jearim (1895); S. A. 
Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) ; E. SCHURE, Sanctuaires d'' Orient, 
Egypte, Grece, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr VON Gall, Altisraelitische Kult- 
stdtten (1898); B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen 
Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notes sur les temples paiens de furviere a 
l'epoque romaine," KUniversite catholique, 1899, PP- 361-92; Basset, "Les sanctu- 
aires du Djebel Nefousa," Journal asiatique, 1900 ; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves 
(1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde 
nach de??i babylonischen Exil, Vol. II (1901), pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen 
des salomonischen Tempels, I Kb. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift .fur die alttestamentliche Wis- 
sensckaft, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 145-90; K. Budde, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung 
der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901). 

§ 82. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms 15:7; 
11:4; 20:2; 22:25; 24:3; 26: 6-8, 12 ; 27 : 4-6 ; 28:2; 29 : 9 ; 
36:8 ; 40 : 9; 42 : 4; 43:3 f.; 46 : 4 ; 48: 1 f., 8 f.; 51 : 18 f.; 52 :8 ; 
55: 14; 61 : 4; 63:2; 65: i, 4; 66: 13; 68 : 15-17, 24, 29 ; 69:9; 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1 



73:17; 74:2 ff.; 76:2; 77:13; 78:54, 58, 60, 68 f.; 79:1-13; 
84; 87; 92:13; 93:5; 9 6:6 - 8 ; 99:9; 100:4; 102:13ft.; 114:2; 
122; 125:1; 127: 1 (?) ; 132; 134; 135: if.; 138:2; and formulate 
a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the 
idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter. 

2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc- 
ryphal books, e. g., 1 Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : 1, 68 ; 6 : 7, 18, 26, 51, 54 
7:33-38 ; 9:54-57 ; 10:41-44; 11 : 37; 13: 3, 6; 14: 15, 48 : 16 : 20 
2 Mace. 1 : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : 1 ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3:2, 12, 14 ff. 
4:M; 5 : J 5- 21 ; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23 

14 .-4, 31-33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem 
to have been made. 

3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New 
Testament, e. g., in Matt. 4:3; 6:2,6; 9:35; 12: 4-6, 9 ; 1 3 *: 54 ; 
21:12-14,23; 23 : 16-22, 35 ; 24 : 1 ff., 15 ; 26:61; 27:5; Mark 

1 : 21-29; 3:1; 5 : 22, 35 ff.; 6 : 2 ff.; 11 : 15 ff., 27; 12 : 41 ff.; 13 : 1 
ff., 9 ; 14 : 58 ; Luke 1 : 8-23 52:22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38, 
44; 6:6; 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 10 ; 19 : 45 ff.; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f. 
John 2 : 13-22 ; 4 : 19-24 ; 7:14, 28; 11 : 55 ff.; 16:2; Acts 1 : 13 f. 

2 : t ff., 46 ; 3 : 1 ff.; 4:1; 6 : 13 f.; 9 : 1 f., 20 ; 13 : 14 f., 43 ; 14:1 
16:16; 17:1 ff., 10, 17; 18:4, 8, 19; 19:8 f.; 20 : 7 ff.; 21 : 26 ff. 
22:19; 25:8; 28 : 30 f.; 1 Cor. 8:10; 16:19; Eph. 2 : 19-22 ; 1 
Tim. 3 : 15; Philem., vs. 1 ; Heb. 8 : 1 f.; 9 : 1-12, 24 f.; 10 : 19 f.; 
12 : 18 ff.; 13 : 10 ff.; Rev. 8 : 3; 9:13; 11: if., 19; 14 : i5> l8 5 

1 5 : 5—8 ; 21 : 3, 22; and formulate the points of difference which 
appear. 

4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting (a) 
its relation to the temple, (p) the different character of its services as 
compared with those of the temple, (c) its origin in response to a great 
religious need, and (a 7 ) its historical significance as the forerunner of 
the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1; 
20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5:35; 6 : 1 ff.; Acts 
9 : 1 ff.; 13 : 13 ff.; 14 : 1 ; 17:1, etc. 5 

5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan 

s See article " Synagogue " in Encyclopedia Bntannica ; E. H. Plumptre, article 
"Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol. I, pp. 428 ff.; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v. 
" Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div. 
II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp. 
430-50; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Time of Christ ; Kent, A History 
of the Jewish People (see Index). 



82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength 
or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem? What was the 
attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple? See, e. g., Ezra, chap. 
4 ; Neh. 2 : 18-20 ; 4 : 1-23 ; 6 : 1-19 ; 13 : 28 ; John 4 : 19-24 (cf. § 45). 
6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to 
the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a 
temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is 
regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§83. Sacrifice in the Early Period, that is, as described in (a) the 
Covenant Code, {p) the historical material of J and E, (V) the pre- 
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and (d) the pre- 
Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note 1). 

1. Kinds of offerings. 1 

Gen. 28 : 18 ; 35:14; Exod. 8 : 20 f.; 10 : 24 ff.; 18:12; 20 : 24 ; 24 : 5 ; 
Judg. 6:26; 1 Sam. 10:8; 21:6; 1 Kings 3:4; 12: 26-35 J 2 Kings 
16:12 f.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4:13; 9:4; 11:2. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 

Gen. 4:3; 15 : 9 ff.; 8 : 20 ff.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14 ; Exod. 20 : 24; 
Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; 1 Sam. 7:9 f.; 
21:6; 1 Kings 8 : 5. 

3. Manner of sacrifice. 

Exod. 34 : 25 ; 23 : 18 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam. 
6:13; 1 Kings 1 8 : 30-38 ; 2 Kings 16:12 f . 

4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. 

Gen. 46:1^/ Exod. 23:15c; 34:20c/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg. 
6:18-24; 13:16-19; 1 Sam. i:3ff.; 6:15; 7:9^; 11:15; 20:29; 
2 Sam. 6: 13, 17 f.; 24:22-25; 1 Kings 8 : 5 ; 18:30-38. 

5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal. 

Gen. 18 : 1-8 ; 31:54; Exod. 18 : 12 ; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 : 6b, 7 ; 
1 Sam. 1 : 3 ff.; 9: 12 f.; 16 : 2, 5 ; 20: 29. 

6. Human sacrifice was not unknown. 
Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3".2(?). 

7. Sacrifice to idols was common. 

Exod. 32:6; 1 Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5:17 (?); 10:19, 24 f.; 
Hos. 4:13; 11:2. 

8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice. 
1 Sam. 2 : 13-17. 

x The following are J-references : Gen. 4:3; 8:20 ff.; 18 : 1-8 ; 35 = 14 ; Exod. 
8:20 f.; 34 : 20c, 25 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 (?); Deut. 27 : 63, 7 (?). The following are 
E-references : Gen.i5:9ff.; 22:1-13, 28:18; 31 = 54; 46 : l<* ,' Exod. 10 : 24 ff.; 
18:12; 20:24; 23:15*, 18; 24:5; 32:6; Numb. 22:4-0. 

83 



84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. 

Amos 4:4k; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13. J 9J 6:6; 8:13; 9:4; 
11:2; 13:2; Isa. 1:11-13; 34 : 6. 

§ 84. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ? 
What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the 
meaning of the burnt-offering ? of the peace-offering ? of the pass- 
over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period 
was equivalent to a social meal ; (b) the eating of meat was a sacrificial 
act ; (<;) the spirit of joy accompanied the act. 

2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the 
flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine, 
meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds 
of material ? 

3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a 
sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the 
morning of the following day ? W T hat points concerning sacrifice 
may be noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23 : 1-4, 
14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and 
what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on Gilgal, and note the 
bearing of the details on the subject. 

4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri- 
fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What 
was sought for in the act ? 

5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the 
religious element ? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the 
meal ? Was the deity ever supposed to be related to the family ? 
What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy 
which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice ? 

6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, 
and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the 
custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong 
ideas did it rest upon ? 

7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to 
idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that 
of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to 
have been expected ? 

8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of 
support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice. 

9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 85 

attitude toward sacrifice; and consider whether the prophet was 
opposing (a) the act of sacrifice itself ; or (d) a cold, indifferent, hypo- 
critical spirit, with which men in those days had become accustomed 
to offer sacrifice ; or (c) the feeling, which had become quite general, 
that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all 
that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con- 
stituted religion. 

§85. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the 
early period, embodying the material presented above. 

§ 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws 
of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter- 
onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings. 

1. Kinds of offerings. 2 

Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 

Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 ff.; 1 Sam. 2 : 27. 

3. Manner of offering. 

Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 27. 

4. Occasion and purpose of offerings. 
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; 1 Sam. 3:14; Jer. 33 : 11. 

5. Social element in sacrifice. 
Deut. 12 : 4-14 ; 1 Kings 3:15. 

6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms. 
Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28. 

7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice. 
Deut. 18 : 3, 4 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 28, 36. 

8. Human sacrifice still existed. 
Mic. 6 : 6-8. 

9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. 

Zeph. 1 :7, 8; Mic. 6:6-8 ; Jer. 6:20 ; 7:21 f., 29; 17:26 ; 33 : 11,81 ; 
46 :io ; Isa. 43 : 23 f. 

§ 87. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Note in Deut. 12:4-7 ( a ) tne kinds of offerings mentioned 
(including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and (a) the spirit 
of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in 
Mic. 6 : 6-8 (a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own 
child), (&) the purpose of sacrifice, and (c) the requirement of Jehovah. 

2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages 
2 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy. 



86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in 
the earlier age. 

3. Consider (a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ; 
(6) the roasting of the flesh ; (c) the eating of the flesh ; {d) the employ- 
ment of men "to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice." 

4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of 
Israel out of Egypt, {a) in relation to time (was there not a spring 
feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus ?) ; (&) in 
relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; (c) in 
relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to 
purge or purify from sin ? Was sacrifice intended also to be an 
expression of gratitude for some favor already received ? 

5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does 
the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute 
a sacrifice ? 

6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani- 
mals and the act of sacrifice? Wherein does the distinction consist? 
What led to the making of the distinction ? What, naturally, will 
follow as a result of making this distinction ? 

7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which 
are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his maintenance; 
(b) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine, 
and meal ; and (c) the ground for these gifts. 

8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still 
used for sacrifice ? 

9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac- 
rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude. 

§88. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain, 
in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period 
in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period. 

§89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel. 

1. Kinds of offerings. 

Ezek. 40:39; 42:13; 46:12; 45:13-17; 20:40. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 
Ezek. 44:15; 46 :4-7- 

3. Manner of sacrifice. 

Ezek. 40:38-43; 44:ii» 15 ; 46:4-15. 24. 

4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. 
Ezek. 46:4-15; 43:18-27; 45:13-25. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 



87 



5. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet. 
Ezek. 39 : 17-20 ; 46:24. 

6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols. 
Ezek. 20 : 28-3 1. 

7. Human sacrifice. 
Ezek. 16 :2o f.; 23 139. 

8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice. 
Ezek. 42 : 13. 

§90. Constructive Work. — Consider the various allusions to sacri- 
fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a 
statement covering (a) the points of resemblance and difference in 
comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; (b) the more 
formal and official character with which sacrifice seems to be invested 
by Ezekiel ; (c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided 
for, e. g., in 46 : 4-15 ; {d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the 
earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24). 

§91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in (a) the 
laws of the Levitical Code, (&) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the 
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 

1. Kinds of offerings. 3 

Lev. 7:1,11; 6 : 8, 14, 25 ; 8 : 22 ; 23: 10b, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ; 
Numb. 15 :ig ; 5 : 11-31. 

2. Materials of sacrifice. 

Lev. 1 : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2 : 1, 4 1, 7, 11, 13-15 ; 3 : 1, 3 f., 6 1, gf., 12, 14 f., 
16 f.; 5:6 f., 11 ; 6: 1-7, 15, 19I; 7 -.3-5, 11 ft.; 9: 1-4; 12: 6-8 ; 14:10, 
49 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 15 : 1-21 ; Exod. 2g : 1-3, 22 f., 38-42 ; Numb., 
chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f-I 23: 10^-14. 

3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred. 
Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f.; 9 : 19-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc. 

4. Manner of sacrifice. 

Lev. 1 : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 ; 2 : 1 f., 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 f., 12 ; 
6 : 1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23, 24-30 ; 7 : 1 ff., 11-21 ; 8 : 14-30 ; 9 : 8-11, 
12-14, 15-24; 14:10-32, 49-53; 16:3-28:24:5-9; Numb. 5 : 11-31; 
19 : 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 29 f.; 19 : 5-8. 

5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. 

Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 f., 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5 : 1-6, 13-15, 17-19 ; 6 : 1-7, 30 ; 
9:7; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31, 53 ; 15 : 13-15, 28-30 ; 23 : iob-21 ; Numb. 
5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; 19 : 1-22 ; chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 7-10. 

3 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 



88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

6. The priests' share of the sacrifice. 

Lev. 2:3,10; 5:13; 6 : 16-18, 26, 29 ; 7 : 6-10, 14, 28-38 ; 8:31; 10 : 12- 
20; Numb. 5:5-10; Exod. 29:27-32; Numb. 18:8-20. 

7. All slaughter is sacrificial. 
Lev. 17: 1-9. 

8. Few references to idolatrous sacrifices. 
Lev. 17:7. 

9. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice. 

Isa. 19:21; 56:7; 66 : 3 ; Mai. 1:7-9; 3 = 3-5; Joel 1:9, 13; 2: 14; 
Dan. 9 : 27. 

10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories. 

1 Chron. 15 : 26 ; 16: 1 ; 21 :26£f.; 29 : 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5; 2:4; 5:6; 
7 : 4 ff.; 8 : 12 f.; 11 : 16 ; 13 : 11; 15:11; 24 : 14 ; 29:20-36; 30: 15 fif.; 
3i:2ff.; 33:i6f.; Ezra3:2ff.; 6:17; 7-^7\ 8:35; 10:19; Neh. 
io:33f.; I2:43f. 

11. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice. 
Lev. 4:35; chap. 16; 9:3; io:i6fi\; Numb. 15:22-31; 19:1-9. 

§92. Questions and Suggestions. — How much in detail the various 
topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be 
determined in some measure by one's archaeological interests. In any 
case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as 
well as their religious, bearing : 

1. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering, 
peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved 
in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ- 
ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible, 
in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and 
determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider, 
now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : (a) Are they, 
in each case, voluntary or obligatory? (b) Are they, in each case, 
self-dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible 
bases for classification. 

2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac- 
rifice, noting, (a) in reference to animal offerings : (1) the particular 
animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of 
the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether 
the distinction between clean and unclean animals 4 was in any way 
connected with the choice for sacrifice ; (3) in reference to vegetable 

*• Cf. Lev., chap. 11 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. Simcox, article "Clean and 
Unclean," §8, in Encyclopedia Biblica, and chap. x. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89 

offerings: (1) the particular vegetables authorized ; (2) the reason or 
reasons for this selection ; (c) the character of offerings worthy of being 
accepted ; (d) other possible gifts outside of animals and vegetables, 
e. g., one's hair, 5 one's virginity, 6 one's blood; 7 (e) objects connected 
more or less closely with sacrifice, e. g., wine, incense, salt, oil, blood, 
fat, leaven, honey; (/) the meaning or significance of each kind of 
material as employed in sacrifice. 

3. Note the particularly important emphasis placed upon the use of 
the blood and fat, and consider what was involved in this, and the 
principle underlying it. 

4. Study, in detail, the method of sacrifice, viz., (a) the ceremonial 
of the animal sacrifice which included (1) the circumstances connected 
with the presentation of the victim, e. g., the laying on of hands, the 
time, the place, (2) the slaughter, (3) the use made of the blood, (4) 
the flaying of the animal and its dissection, (5) the burning, (6) the 
washing, (7) the waving and heaving, (8) the sacrificial meal; (&) the 
ceremonial, in similar fashion, of the vegetable offering; (c) the cere- 
monial of the drink-offering ; (d) the distinction involved between 
burning the offering and eating it ; (e) the distinction involved 
between consuming all and only a portion. 

5. Study the occasion and purpose of sacrifice as it appears in the 
later period, considering (a) how far it is national, i. e., offered for the 
nation as a whole (cf. Exod. 29 : 38-42 ; Numb. 28:9 — 29:6); (p) 
how far it is official, i. e., offered for certain officers of the state, the 
priest, or the ruler (cf. Numb. 4 : 22-26); (c) how far it is individual,. 
i. e., offered for the ordinary man as an individual; (d) how far it 
is festal, i. <?., associated with feasts, e. g., the Passover, the Feast of 
Harvest ; (e) how far it is extraordinary, i. e., connected with special 
rather than regularly recurring events ; (/) how far it is local or 
centralized, i. e., offered where one chanced to be, or at some place 
selected from all other places, and authorized as the proper and only 
proper place ; (g) how far it is, in this period, a gift or offering, rather 
than the payment of a demand or of something due. 

6. Put together the various elements which made up the priest's 

s See Lev. 19:27; 21:5; cf. Jer. 7:29, and W. R. Smith, Religion of the 
Semites, 2d ed., pp. 323-35. 

6 Cf. 1 Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:47; 2 Kings 23:7; NoWACK, Hebraische 
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 132 f.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, pp. 454 ff.; 
Frazer, Golden Bough, Vol. II, pp. 225 ff. 

f Cf Ps. 50 : 13 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (see Index, s. v. " Blood "); 
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant. 



90 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

due, and consider whether (a) upon the whole he was properly repaid 
for his services, (&) he deserved any longer to be classed with the 
widow and orphan, as in Deuteronomy. 

7. Note that all slaughter of animals for purposes of eating is 
sacrificial ; that every animal must be formally presented at the 
appointed place; and that punishment is to be inflicted upon those 
who do not recognize this fact. 

8. Observe that offerings to idols have almost fallen into disuse. 

9. Consider the attitude of the later prophets toward sacrifice ; are 
they hostile? or indifferent ? 

10. Make a list of the events narrated in the later histories with 
which sacrifice is connected, and note (a) how large a place sacrifice is 
given ; (b) how much more frequently the priest-writers recount the 
act of sacrifice than do the prophetic writers of Samuel and Kings ; (c) 
the significance of this in connection with the greater importance 
attached to sacrifice in this later period. 

11. Consider (a) the intimate connection, whether expressed or 
implied, between all this detail of ceremonial and the idea of sin; (b) 
the intimate connection between the idea of sin thus expressed and the 
conception of God which had come to exist in this period ; (c) the 
suggestive fact that, side by side with this objective expression of the 
appreciation of sin and of longing for communion with God, there 
should have been written so many of the psalms, which express sub- 
jectively and spiritually the same idea. 

§93. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will present 
in the form of a summary the essential differences between the later 
and preceding periods in reference to sacrifice, including (a) the 
chief points of practice, and (&) the essential principles involved. 

§ 9 1. Literature to be Consulted. 

J. H. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1863); Alfred Barry, 
articles "Sacrifice," "Sin-Offering," "Meat-Offering," "Burnt-Offering," etc., in 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863); Ewald, The Antiquities of Israel {^ ed. 1866, 
transl. 1876), pp. 23-111; Kalisch, Commentary o?t Leviticus (1867-72), Part I, pp. 
1-416; Part II, pp. 9, 217 ff., 290 ff.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 
1874 f.), Vol. I, pp. 236 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp. 
261-323; Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" Sayce, 
"On Human Sacrifice among the Babylonians," Transactions of the Society of Biblical 
Archaology, Vol. IV (1876), pp. 25-31 ; E. Park, " On the Question of the Divine 
Institution of Sacrifice," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1876, pp. 102-32 ; A. Cave, The Scriptural 
Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atone?nent (187 7) ; Wellhatjsen, Prolegomena to the History 
of Israel (1878), pp. 52-82 ; R. Collins, "An Essay on Sacrifice," in The Pulpit Com- 
mentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xiv ; Alfred Cave, "The Levitical Sacrifices 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 9 1 

Literally Considered," in The Pulpit Commentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xxxi; 
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant { 1885), see Index, s. v. " Sacrifice ;" Leighton, 
The Jewish Altar (1886); A. Hovey, " Shekkar and Leaven in Mosaic Offerings," 
Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 11-16; H. Crosby, "The Sacrifices," Old Testament 
Student, 1886, pp. 249 f.; W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice" in Encyclopedia Britannica 
(1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 
77-82; F. Gardiner, "On the Reason for the Selection of Certain Animals for Sacri- 
fice," Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1 888, pp. 146-50 ; 
W. H. Ward, "On Some Babylonian Cylinders, Supposed to Represent Human 
Sacrifices," Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, May, 1888, pp. xxviii-xxx ; 
KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice ;" 
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (1st ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 213-340 ; 
Robertson, Early Religion of Israel (1889), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" P. A. 
Nordell, "Old Testament Word-Studies: 7. Sacrifice and Worship," Old Testament 
Student, Vol. VIII (1889), pp. 257 ff.; W. M. RoDWELL, The Mosaic Sacrifices in 
Lev. I-III (1890); Schultz, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. "Sacri- 
fice;" Duff, Old Testa?nent Theology (1891-1900), see Indices to Vols. I and II; 
Th. E. SchmauCK, "The Paschal Lamb," Lutheran Church Review, 1891, pp. 
127-63; C. J. Ball, "Glimpses of Babylonian Religion. I: Human Sacrifices," 
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIV (1892), pp. 149-53; 
Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index; H. B. Tristram, 
"Sacrifices in Babylonia and Phoenicia," Sunday School Times, 1894, No. 1 ; H. C. 
Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Lndcx, s. v. "Sacrifice;" A. 
Harper, "The Prophets and Sacrifice," Expositor, 1894, pp. 241-53; T. K. Cheyne, 
"The Date and Origin of the Ritual of the Scapegoat," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta- 
menlliche Wissenschaft, 1895, PP- JE 53— 6 ; Ph. J. Hoedemaker, "The Atonement 
Money," The Thinker, 1895 ; A. A. Berle, " The Real Meaning of Semitic Sacrifice," 
Bibliotheca Sacra, 1895, pp. 342-6; Menzies, History oj Religion (1895), see Index, 
s. v. "Sacrifice;" Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (1896), see Index, s. v. "Sacri- 
fice;" Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. 
"Offerings;" Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. 
"Sacrifices;" A. Fairbanks, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Homeric Poems," 
The New World, June, 1898, pp. 335-48; A. F. Scot, Offering and Sacrifice: An 
Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development (1899); Trumbull, The 
Covenant of Salt (1899), pp. 83-96; Boys-Smith, "Sacrifice in Ancient Religion 
and in Christian Sacrament," Expository Times, December, 1899; January, 1900 ; 
S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, etc.," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible 
(1900); Gast, " Idea of Sacrifice as Developed in the Old Testament," Reformed 
Church Review, January, 1900; Hermann Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice 
in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; 
Davis, " The Sin-Offering," Bible Student, February, 1900 ; Edward Day, The Social 
Life of the Hebrews (1901), pp. 39-46; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monu- 
ments (1895-1901), §§ 738, 1006 f., 1014 ; D. McKenzie, Exposition of Old Testament 
Sacrifice (1901). 

V. Thalhofer, Die unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen Cultus (1848); IIeng- 
STENBERG, Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (1852) ; Riehm, " Ueber das Schuldopfer," 
Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1854, pp. 93-121 ; S. W. Rinck, "Ueber das Schuldop- 
fer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1855, pp. 369-8 1; A. Stofckt., Das Opfer, nach 



92 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

seinem Wesen unci seiner Geschichte (i860); Oehler, revised by von ORELLI, article 
"Opferkultus des A. T '.'s," Real- Encyklopddie fiir protestantische Theol. und Kirche 
(2d ed., 1883); Menant, "Les sacrifices sur les cylindres chaldeens," Gazette 
archeologique, 1883, Nos. 7-9; Franz Delitzsch, article "Opfer" in Riehm's 
Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, Reste des arabiscJien 
Heidenthums (1887), pp. 110-28; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887 f.),Vol. I, 
pp. 492-8; Vol. II, pp. 253-64; L. Glahn, "Soningen i den gammeltestamentlige 
Offerkultus," Festskrift Borcks Colleg., pp. 281-3 (1889); Friedr. NlTZSCH, Die Idee 
und die Stufen des Opferkultus (1889) ; C. Piepenbring, "Histoire des lieux de culte 
et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Vhisioire des religions, 1891, pp. 1-60, 133-86; 
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et V expiation (1891); A. Schmoller, " Das 
Wesen der Siihne in der alttestl. Opferthora," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1 89 1, pp. 
205-88; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestl. Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), 
pp. 138-45; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 203- 
75; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 431-64 ; P. Schanz, "Der Opfer- 
begriff," Theol. Quartalschrift, 1894, PP- 179-222; G. A. Siegrist, L'idee du sacrifice 
dans VA. T. (1894) '■> Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestl. Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. 
" Opfer ; " Stade, " Die Eiferopferthora," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestl. Wissenschaft, 1895, 
pp. 166-78 ; Kamphausen, Das Verhdltnis des Menschenopfers zur israelitischen Reli- 
gion (1896) ; Marti, Geschichte der israelii. Religion (1897), pp. 103-7, 225-3 1 ; Levi, 
La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmdnas (1898); G. DE Alviella, "La theorie du 
sacrifice et les recherches de Robertson Smith," Revue de Puniversite de Bruxelles, 
April, 1898; M. Lambert, " Le mot ")1EH," Journal asiatique, Vol. XI (1898), pp. 
326 f.; C. Schmidt, Die Entwickelung der alttestamentlichen Opferidee (1899); A. 
Loisy, "Notes sur la Genese. VI: Le sacrifice d'Isaac : Gen. 22 : 1-19," Revue de 
Vhistoire et de la litterature religieuses, 1899, pp. 458-62; P. Volz, "Die Handauf- 
legungbeim Opfer," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 190 1 ; Lefebure, 
" Le sacrifice humam d'apres les rites de Busiris et d'Abydos," Sphinx, Vol. Ill, 
No. 2 ; Chwolson, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, Vol. II, pp. 142-55* 

§95. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Study the principal references to sacrifice found in the Psalter, 
e.g., Pss. 4:5; 20:3; 40:6; 50:5,8-14, 23; 51:161., 19; 54:6; 
56:12; 66:13, 15; 96 : 8 ; 106: 28, 37 f.; 107:22; 116:17; 118:27; 
and consider (a) the attitude in general of these song-writers; (b) how 
far they have spiritualized the subject; (c) the relationship between 
the Levitical ceremonial and the spirit of the Psalms. 

2. What did the sage have to say about sacrifice ? Cf. Job 1:5; 
22:27; 42 : 8 f.; Prov. 7:14; 15:8; 21:27; Eccles. 9 : 2. 

3. From an examination of the books of Maccabees — e. g., 1 Mace. 
5 : 54; 7 : 33 ; ll ■ 34 5 12:11; 2 Mace. 1 : 8, 18, 23, 26, 31 ; 2 :9ft.; 
3 : 3, 6,32 ; 4: 14 ; 6:7; 9 : 16 ; 12 : 43 ; 13: 23; 14 : 31— determine 
the spirit in which sacrifices were offered during the Maccabaean period, 
and note any changes that present themselves. 

4. Consider the subject of sacrifice as it appears in the epistle to 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 93 

the Hebrews, e. g., Heb. 5 : 1-3 ; 7 : 26 f.; 9:6; 10 : 18, 26 ; 11:17; 
13 : 10-16. 

5. Consider the meaning and usage in the several documents of the 
various Hebrew words for sacrifice, viz., )"QT ; JlTOj ; fibfa ; DTabtfJ ; 

nm ; t-np ; naton ; min ; nana ; ipi { nm ) ' mm ; ns^pi ; 

t t It :'t t - t t t: I v v v • t : t : 

Ma. 

• T 

Cy. S. R. Driver, article " Offer, Offering, Oblation," in Hastings' Dictionary 
of the Bible. 

6. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Egyptians, 
Greeks, and Romans, and note points of similarity and difference as 
compared with the usages of the Hebrews. 

See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica. 

7. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Assyrians, 
the Arabs, and the Canaanites, and note points of similarity and dif- 
ference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews. 

See especially Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," 
Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia 
and Assyria {Index, s. v. " Sacrifice "); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; L. W. 
King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.; A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and 
Assyrians, pp. 245-9. 

8. Consider the question of the origin of sacrifice. 

See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica ; A. F. Scot, 
Offering and Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Develop?nent. 

9. Prepare a definition of sacrifice which may be considered biblical. 

10. Consider the teachings inculcated by sacrifice, and whether these 
teachings (a) constituted the purpose and end of the Jewish service, 
or {b) pointed to something beyond and above. 

11. Consider the relation of sacrifice, as it is represented in the 
Old Testament, to the Christ of the New Testament. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS, CONSIDERED COMPARA- 
TIVELY. 

§ 96. The Feasts of Early Times, that is, as described in (a) the 
Covenant Code; (b) the historical material of J and E; (c) the pre- 
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and (d) the 
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i). 1 

1. The Feast of Unleavened Bread. 2 
Exod. 34:18; 23:15; 13:3-10. 

2. The Feast of Weeks. 
Exod. 34 : 22 ; 23 : 16a. 

3. The Feast of Tabernacles. 

Exod. 34:22^/ 23:16$/ 1 Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32; Judg. 9:27; 
21 : 19 ff. 

4. There were three feasts at which attendance was required by 
law. 

Exod. 34 : 23 f.; 23 : 14-17 ; 1 Kings 9:25; 1 Sam. 1 : 3. 

5. The feasts were connected with agriculture. 
Exod. 23 : 15 f . ; 34 : 22 ; Judg. 21 . 1 9 ff . 

6. The feasts were always of a joyous and social character. 
Exod. 32 : 5 f.; Judg. 21 : 19 ff.; 1 Sam. 1 : 3, 7, 13 ff. 

7. A feast often involved a pilgrimage to some shrine. 
Exod. 10:9; Judg. 1 1 : 40 (?) ; 1 Sam. 1 : 3, 7 ; 2:19. 

8. The Passover. 

Exod. 34 : 25 ; 12:21-27. 

9. The Feast of the New Moon. 

Hos. 5:7(?); 1 Sam. 2o:5f.; 18 : 24 ff.; 2 Kings 4 : 23. 

10. Special feasts were held, e. g.: the Feast of Sheep-Shearing; 
the Feast of Jephthah's Daughter. 

1 Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 13:23; Judg. 1 1 : 40. 

11. Idolatrous feasts. 

Exod. 32 : 5 ; 1 Kings 12 : 32 f.; 2 Kings 10 : 20. 

12. Attitude of the early prophets toward the feasts. 

Amos 5:21; 8 : 10 ; Hos. 2:11; 5:7 (?); 9:5; 12:9; Isa. 1 : 1 3 f . 

1 The following references are from J : Exod. 34 : 18-25 ; 12 : 21-27 ; 13 : 3-10; 
10 : 9 ; the following are from E : Exod. 23 : 10-17 '> 3 2 : 5- 

2 References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 

94 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS Q$ 

§97. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread, 
(a) the duration ; (b) the date (to what part of our year did Abib cor- 
respond?); (c) the nature and significance of " unleavened bread;" (d) 
the meaning of the phrase, "none shall appear before me empty;" (e) 
the association of this feast with the exodus from Egypt, and the point 
of connection; (/) the seeming identification of two entirely different 
things, viz., the Passover (see below) and the Feast of Unleavened 
Bread. 

2. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Weeks, (a) other 
names for the same feast, viz., Harvest, First-Fruits (Pentecost, cf. Acts 
2:1; 20:16; 1 Cor. 16 : 8) ; (b) the duration (cf. Deut. 16 : 9-12) ; (c) 
the date ; (d) the connection of this feast with the close of the grain 
harvest; (<?) the fact that there is no historical mention in the Old 
Testament of its observance (but cf 2 Mace. 12:32 and the New 
Testament passages indicated above). 

3. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles, (a) other 
names, viz., Booths (Deut. 16:13), Ingathering; (b) the duration (cf 
Deut. 16 : 13-15) ; (c) the date, late in the autumn ; (d) the connection 
of this feast with the completion of the harvest of fruit, oil, and wine; 
(e) the lack of any specific regulations in the earlier legislation ; (/) 
the fact that historical mention is made of only this feast among the 
three great feasts (1 Sam. 1 : 1 ff.; 1 Kings 12:32; 6:38); (g) the 
fact that this feast seems to have had its origin among the Canaan- 
ites (Judg. 9:27); (h) the important religious significance involved in 
the idea that the deity was the lord of the land and the dispenser of 
its fruits. 

4. Consider, in reference to these meetings for festal purposes, (a) 
the number ; (b) the distribution of these throughout the year ; (c) the 
class of persons who were expected to be present ; (d) the meaning of 
the phrase " appear before the Lord ; " (e) the guarantee given of safety 
upon the journeys involved in attending the feasts; (/) the custom in 
Solomon's times. Are any places mentioned as the seats of a festival ? 

5. To what extent were these feasts of an agricultural character, that 
is, connected with agricultural pursuits, e. g., harvest, ingathering of 
fruit, etc.? or how far were they solar feasts, that is, connected with 
certain seasons of the year? What was the usual time for harvest in 
Palestine? When did the end of the Jewish year come, and with what 
feast was it connected ? Consider the connection of the feast at 
Shiloh with the vineyards near at hand. What particular characteristics 



96 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

are associated with agricultural as distinguished from historical feasts? 
Would the climate, for example, to some extent determine the date ? 
Would the harvest feast take place at the same time in localities in 
which there was a difference of two or three weeks in the period of the 
ripening of grain ? What kind of feasts would be expected among 
people leading a pastoral life, as distinguished from an agricultural 
life ? If these feasts are of agricultural origin, could Israel have 
observed them before becoming an agricultural people, that is, before 
settling in Canaan ? 

6. Are not harvest and vintage feasts generally occasions for joy? 
Are not eating and drinking and dancing the usual accompaniments 
of a feast ? How far did the idea that the deity was sharing in the 
festivities contribute to the joyousness of the occasion ? Did not the 
eating, etc., contribute to this end ? Was not the very purpose a 
joyous one? Was there yet any conception of God or sin such as 
would interfere with this interpretation ? Was there, at this time, any 
feeling of the need of an atonement ? 

7. (1) Does a man ordinarily feast by himself ? (2) If the social 
element is important, would it be necessary to have places at which 
many might conveniently come together ? Would this not necessarily 
involve a pilgrimage ? (3) Consider the use of sacred places, like 
Shiloh, for such meetings. (4) What would be the social and politi- 
cal influence of such pilgrimages ? 

8. Consider (1) whether the Passover, although forming a part of 

the Feast of Unleavened Bread, is not treated independently of that 

feast; (2) whether, in its very nature, it is not pastoral (that is, of 

nomadic origin), rather than agricultural; (3) the meaning of the name 

"Passover;" 3 (4) the time of year in which it was observed; (5) the 

evidence in Exod. 7:16; 10 : 24, that the Hebrews observed a spring 

festival with offerings from their flocks before the days of Moses ; (6) 

the original significance of the Passover, viz., a sacrificial meal in 

which those who partook united themselves more closely and came 

into closer communion with their God — all this, for greater security; 

( 7) the connection of this very early festival at a later time (a) with the 

historical event of the exodus, and (b) with the Feast of Tabernacles. 

*Cf. article "Passover" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; J. Muller, Kri- 
tischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-Mazzothfestes ; NOWACK, Hebrdische 
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 147 ff., 172 rL; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 470 ff.; 
Riedel, Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX, pp. 319-32; 
Stade, ibid., pp. 333-7; C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of nOS," Journal of Biblical 
Literature, Vol. XVI, pp. 178 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 97 

9. Is the Feast of the New Moon agricultural, or rather astronomi- 
cal ? Is it recognized in the earlier legislation ? Consider (1) its wide 
observance among Semitic peoples; 4 (2) its association with ancient 
family sacrifices; (3) its connection with the sabbath; (4) its possible 
use by prophets as a time for religious assembly; (5) its mention by 
the prophets (see below); (6) its great antiquity. 

10. Consider the Feast of Sheep- Shearing : (1) Was not this, like 
the Feast of the New Moon, a pastoral rather than an agricultural 
feast? (2) Was it recognized in legislation ? (3) Could it be observed 
elsewhere than in a cattle-producing portion of the country ? (4) 
How late in Israel's history does it appear to have come down ? (5) 
Did it ever take on any special religious significance? (6) What, in 
general, did it celebrate? Consider the mourning-feast in connec- 
tion with the devotion of Jephthah's daughter to a life of perpetual 
virginity, and compare the similar cases in other history. 5 

11. Notice how special feasts are celebrated in addition to those 
which became authorized, as in the case of (1) Aaron and the calf, (2) 
Jeroboam at Bethel, (3) Jehu in honor of Baal. 

12. Consider now the place occupied in the religious life by these 
feasts, and their influence : (1) To what extent did the feasts consti- 
tute the religion of the people? (2) How far would men postpone 
religious observances until the time of a feast ? (3) How much store 
did the ordinary Israelite set by the feasts ? Would the threat of 
their extinction disturb him ? (4) In what way would such feasts 
serve to develop national feeling ? to provide an education for the 
people? to encourage the spirit of unity? (5) To what extent would 
these assemblies serve to increase facilities for business transactions ? 
(6) Is there any evidence that, in this period, the people as a whole 
(cf. later times) engaged in a great feast or festival ? Or is it rather the 
custom of families and households? (7) What did the prophet say 
of the religious value of the feasts? To what did he make objection ? 
(a) the lack of heart manifested ? (b) or the fact that they were held 
in honor of other gods ? or (c) the fact that the people thought the 
holding of these feasts to constitute the whole of religion, and 
neglected all that seemed pure and good in a religious life ? 

4 Cf Morris J astro w, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see Index, s. v. 
Moon," "Zag-muk," "Festivals," etc.; I. Abrahams, article "New Moon" in 
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. See also Hommel, Aufsatze und Abhandlnngen 
(1900), pp. 149-65. 

s Cf. Goldziher, Mythology among the Hebrews, pp. 96 ff., 104; Stade, Ge- 
schichte des Voltes Israel, Vol. I, p. 68 ; G. F. MOORE, A Critical and Exegeticat 
Commentary on Judges, pp. 304 f. 



98 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 98. Constructive Work. — Prepare a tabular statement which will 
present in systematic form the facts concerning the feasts of the earlier 
period, as follows: (1) name, (2) origin, (3) date, (4) duration, (5) 
characteristic ritual, (6) meaning of name, (7) religious significance. 

§ 99. Feasts of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described (a) in 
the laws of Deuteronomy, (b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the 
books of Samuel and Kings, and (c) by the prophets of the Deutero- 
nomic period. 6 

1. Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread are now combined. 
Deut. 16 : 1-8. 

2. Feast of Weeks. 
Deut. 16 : 9-12. 

3. Feast of Tabernacles. 
Deut. 16 : 13-15 ; 31 : 10 f. 

4. All feasts must be held at the one central sanctuary. 
Deut. 16 : 5-7, 11, 16 ; 31:11, 

5. The law still requires attendance at three feasts. 
Deut. 16 : 16 f . 

6. Feasts are still occasions of joy. 

Deut. 12 : 8 ; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 11, 14 f .; 24 : 1 1 ; Isa. 9 : 3. 

7. Feasts are still on an agricultural basis. 
Deut. 16 : 9, 13 ; cf. 16 : 1. 

8. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. 

Nah. 1:15; Jer. 51 : 39 ; Lam. 1:4, 15; 2 : 6 f ., 22. 

9. Josiah's Passover. 
2 Kings 23 : 21-23. 

§ 100. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Concerning the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread, 
consider (1) that the two feasts, distinct in origin, are now observed 
together; (2) the association of the Passover with the exodus; (3) the 
connection of this rite with that of the firstlings (Deut. 15:19 ff.); (4) 
the duration ; (5) the lack of any designation of the day of the month ; 
(6) the significance of the unleavened bread, and its historical connec- 
tion ; (7) the treatment of any remaining flesh; (8) the place at which 
this feast shall be observed; (9) the change in ritual and conception 
which takes place in the case of the Passover feast, and the reason for 
this ; (10) the circumstances leading to the coalescence of the two 
feasts. 

6 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book 
of Deuteronomy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 99 

2. Concerning the Feast of Weeks, notice (i) that the time is fixed 
in connection with that of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, viz., seven 
weeks, the fiftieth day; (2) the duration ; (3) the persons who are to be 
invited to the feast; (4) the place; (5) the joyous character; (6) the 
historical reminiscence suggested. 

3. Concerning the Feast of Tabernacles, consider (1) the name and 
its origin (cf. 1 Sam. 1:8); (2) the time (no particular day designated); 
(3) the persons who are to participate; (4) the duration ; (5) the place; 
(6) the motive ; (7) the joyous character. 

4. Consider the meaning of the constantly recurring phrase, " in the 
place which Jehovah thy God shall choose to cause his name to dwell 
there;" is it (1) a place, at one time in one locality, at another time in 
another locality, and consequently, in the course of time, are several 
places thus designated ? Or (2) is it one central place for all time, 
viz., Jerusalem ? (3) Consider some of the consequences which would 
follow such centralization; e. g. : (a) Would the feast thus transferred 
to Jerusalem continue its agricultural or pastoral character ? (b) If a 
particular day is fixed, could the harvest feast any longer be connected 
with the harvest, which, on account of difference of climate, occurred 
at widely separated dates ? (c) Would the historical be likely to sup- 
plant the natural interpretation of the feast ? (d) Would the original 
ritual also lose its significance ? (e) Could the firstlings actually be 
taken io Jerusalem to be sacrificed ? (/) Could the head of a family 
take-ifhe^entire family and dependents to Jerusalem ? (g) Would he 
sell K^own animal or grain, and then go to Jerusalem and buy (Deut. 
14 : d ^^ L ^ s &)? Would this affect commerce? (/i) Could a man, in this 
case, arrange a sacrificial meal in Jerusalem and have his family and 
friends 3vith him, as in the village or country? (/) Would not this lead 
to an entire change in the feeling connected with the observance of 
the feast ? Would the observance become more general and less 
individual, more formal and serious, and less joyous ? 

5. Although the law still required attendance at these feasts, is it 
possible to suppose that any considerable proportion of the people 
could leave their homes and their work, and go to Jerusalem three 
times in a year ? Would this have the effect of depriving these people 
of religious privileges? 

6. Although the feasts are represented as still continuing their 
joyous character, could the old feeling actually have existed under the 
new regime, cut off as the worshiper was from friends and family, lost 
as he must have been in the great crowds gathering at Jerusalem ? 

L.ofC. 



100 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

7. Although feasts are still nominally on an agricultural basis 
{cf. the names, the method of determining the date, etc.), will it be 
possible for the agricultural character to be long maintained in view 
of (1) the detachment of the feasts from the exact season (one time 
being fixed for the entire country, although the harvest took place at 
different dates on account of climate); (2) their association with his- 
torical events and the emphasis thus placed on the idea of com- 
memoration ; (3) the necessary sale of one's own effects, and the 
purchase of others for the purpose of the feast ? 

8. Upon the supposition that the prophets themselves had to do 
with the formulation of the policy presented in Deuteronomy, and in 
view of the opinions expressed by Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, what may 
we understand to have been their general position on the subject of 
these feasts and festivals ? Did they represent the feasts as being an 
essential element in the religious life ? Did they wish to see them 
modified in their character ? Was it for this reason that they joined 
with the priests in those reforms, recorded in Deuteronomy, which in 
the end largely revolutionized the whole system ? Did they think that 
the people were placing a false value upon these feasts in comparison 
with a pure and simple life ? 

9. Upon the acceptance of the book of Deuteronomy by Josiah and 
his people in 621 B. C, (1) what attitude was taken by the king 
toward the various corrupt forms of worship which existed at that time 
(cf. Deut. 23 14-20)? (2) What was the command issued as to the 
observance of the Passover ? Does this mean that it had fallen into 
disuse ? If so, how is such disuse to be explained ? (3) What was the 
character of the Passover observed on this occasion ? 

§ 10 1. Constructive Work. — Write a statement covering three points : 
(1) the feasts which now no longer seem to be observed, and the rea- 
sons ; (2) the modifications which have come to exist in the feasts 
transmitted from the earlier period, and an explanation of these 
modifications; (3) the progress, if any, which has been made in the 
adaptation of the ceremonial of worship (so far as it concerned feasts) 
to the religious life ; or, to use the form of a question, was Israel in a 
better or worse position for the cultivation of the religious life, with 
the changes which had now come about ? 

§102. Constructive Work. — From Ezek. 36:38; 45:17, 18-21, 
22-25 ; 46 : 1, 3, 6 ff., 9, consider (1) whether, in general, Ezekiel has 
much to say upon the subject. Is this because his development lies 
along other lines, or because the development has already reached its 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10 1 

highest point ? (2) Is there evidence (if so, what ?) that the Deutero- 
nomic system of feasts is accepted ? (3) In what cases are definite 
dates now given, in which, hitherto, the time has been left undesig- 
nated ? (4) What, now, is the relation of the Feast of the Passover to 
that of Unleavened Bread ? (5) Present the evidence, if any is to be 
found, that the feasts have now lost their joyous character. (6) Is the 
centralization of worship involved in the arrangements which Ezekiel 
proposes ? 

§ 103. The Feasts in the Later Period, that is, as described (a) in the 
laws of the Levitical code, (b) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the 
priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles. 7 

1. Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread. 

Lev. 23 : 4-8 ; Numb. 28 : 16-25 ; 9 : I_I 4 ; Exod. 12 : 1-20, 43-50 ; 2 
Chron. 8:13; 30:13-27; 35:1-19; Ezra 6:19-22. 

2. Feast of Weeks. 

Lev. 23 : 15-21 ; Numb. 28 : 26-31 ; 2 Chron. 8:13. 

3. Feast of Tabernacles. 

Lev. 23 : 34-36, 39-44 ; Numb. 29 : 12-38 ; 2 Chron. 5 : 3 ff.; 7:8-10; 
8:13; Ezra 3: 4; Neh. 8:13-18. 

4. Feast of the New Moon. 

Numb. 28: 11-15; I Chron. 23 -.31; 2 Chron. 8:13; 31:3; Ezra 3:5; 
Neh. 10: 33. 

5. Feast of Trumpets. 

Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 10 : 10. 

6. Definite dates are fixed. 

Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 23, 27, 34, 39 ; Numb., chaps. 28, 29; Esther 9:21. 

7. Agricultural significance is wholly lost. 
Lev. 23 : 42 f . 

8. Celebration of feasts at Jerusalem is taken for granted. 
Zech. 14 : 16-19 ; 1 Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19. 

9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts. 
Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9. 

10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. 
Zech. 14:1 6-1 9 ; Joel 1:14; 2:15. 

11. Thought of sin predominant in feasts. 

Lev. 23: 19; chap. 16; Numb. 28 : 15, 22, 30; 29:5, 11, 16, 19, 22, 25, 
28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10. 

12. Day of Atonement. 

Lev. 23:27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-1 1 ; Exod. 30: 10. 
7 References in bold-face type are from the Levitical code of laws. 



102 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

13. Feast of Purim. 

Esther 8:17; 9 : 15-32. 

§ 104. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of 
the Passover and Unleavened Bread, note (1) the new phrases, "set 
feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness 
with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of "servile work;" (4) 
the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering 
which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering; 
(5) that in time (cf. Exod. 12 : 1-20) the opinion comes to prevail that 
the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that 
Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared 
them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover 
(Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2 
Chron. 30:13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's 
times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1-19); (9) Ezra's Passover; 
(10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character; 
(12) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of 
voluntary gifts. 

2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (1) that the same 
general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened 
Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a 
feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer 
considered a nature feast. 

3. In the references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (1) the same 
points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts, 
viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each 
day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's 
observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark 
(2 Chron. 5:3ft.); (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con- 
nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in 
connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3:4); (5) 
the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8 : 13-18). 

4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of 
the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted,- (1) that a regular 
ceremonial is instituted ; (2) that frequent mention is made of it in 
connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger 
emphasis. 

5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Trumpets, (1) its connec- 
tion with the sabbatical system; 8 (2) the provisions given for its 

8 See chap. ix. 






LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO3 

observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets 
with various feasts. 

6. In all the cases presented consider (1) the fact that now the 
exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact, 
as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations. 

7. In all the cases presented consider (1) the fact that the agri- 
cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case 
of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment), 
a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted; (3) the signifi- 
cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the 
general character of the feasts. 

8. Consider (1) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in 
the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere taken 
for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa- 
lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets 
and historians of the period. 

9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (1) whether the largest 
emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice; (2) whether, in fact, 
with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac- 
tically ignored; (3) the influence of this upon the people; (4) the 
explanation of it. 

10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets 
toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre- 
ciation, or hostility? Why has this change of attitude come about? 
Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new 
policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's 
religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really 
priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ? 
Had prophecy now died ? 

11. Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi- 
nent? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea? that, therefore, 
confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the 
fact, how is it to be explained ? 

12. Concerning the Day of Atonement, one may undertake to 
answer the following questions: (1) Was it observed in the early or 
middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period? 
(2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement 
(45: 18-20) ? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration 
of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7:35; 8:19? (4) Or with 
the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in 



104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Neh. 9:1? (5) What was the fundamental idea in this observance? 
Was propitiation thought of as being made in behalf of the individual or of 
the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What 
evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What 
is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your 
souls" (Lev. 16: 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the 
idea of sin involved in this institution ? 

13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (1) its origin and 
occasion; (2) its date; (3) the question of its connection (a) with a 
Persian feast, (b) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the 
name ; (5) the method of observance. 9 

§ 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show 
the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between 
the usage of the middle period and that of the later period. 

§ 106. Literature to Be Consulted. 

A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix 
iii = The Samaritan Passover (1862); S. Clark, article "Passover," Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 348-80; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1869, 
5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 359-69; II, 87-100, 402 ff.; Kuenen, Religion 
of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 242-5, 262-7 '■> H, PP> 28-30, 89-94, 2 53 f>> 
271-3; III, pp. 148-53; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1873, transl. 1883), 
§§140, 141, 144-6, 150, 153-6; Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services 
(1874), pp. 144-300 ; W. R. Smith, article " Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread," 
Encyclopcedia Britannica (1875) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel 
(1878, transl. 1885), pp. 83-120; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish 
Church (1st ed. 1881, 2d ed.), pp. 240, 269 ; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel (1st ed. 
1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Feasts;" Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus 
the Messiah (1st ed. 1883), see Index, s. v. "Dedication," "Feasts," "Passover," etc.; 
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses 
Concerning the Pentateuch (1885); E. SCHURER, History of the Jewish People in the 
Time of Christ (1885, transl. 1890), passim; Piepenbring, Theology of the Old Tes- 
tament (1886, transl. 1893), see Index, s. v. "Feast," " Passover," etc.; Sayce, Reli- 
gion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 64-9; Doughty, 
Travels in Arabia Deserta, Vol. I (1888), pp. 50-84, 190-214; W. R. Smith, Reli- 
gion of the Semites (isted. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 252-8; Robertson, Early Religion 
of Israel (iSSg), pp. 363, 372, 378, 385, 397, 401; W. St. Chad Boscawen, "The 

9 Cf Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 686 ff.; 
Zimmern, Zeitschrif I fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI, pp. 157-69; De 
Lagarde, Purim — Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Religion; Sayce, Proceedings of 
the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. XIX, pp. 28c; Jensen, Wiener Zeitschrift fiir 
die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. VI, p. 70; C. H. Toy, "Esther as a Babylonian 
Goddess," New World, Vol. VI, pp. 130-45 ; Alexander Kohut, American Journal 
of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV, pp. 192 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 105 

Babylonian and Jewish Festivals," Babylonian and Oriental Record, Vol. IV (1890), pp. 
34-8 ; C. J. Ball, article " Festivals," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893) ; 
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (1893), see Index, s. v. "Feasting;" idem, 
Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Index, s. v. "Feast;" idem, The Threshold 
Covenant (1896), pp. 203-12, 266; H. B. TRISTRAM, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands, 
(1894), PP- 69-86; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. 
XIX (1897), pp. 280 f.; E. E. Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," Hastings' 
Dictionary of the Bible (1898); S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Day of 
Atonement," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); A. Kohut, "The Talmudic 
Records of the Persian and Babylonian Festivals Critically Illustrated," American 
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV (1898),. pp. 182-94 (cf Revue 
des etudes juives, Vol. XXIV , pp. 256-71); Morris Jastrow,Jr., Religion of Babylonia 
and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Festivals;" C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of 
HIDS," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI (1898), pp. 178 f.; I. Benzinger 
and T. K. Cheyne, article " Day of Atonement," Encyclopcedia Biblica (1899); W. 
W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (1899); Warren, 
"Dates on Which Paschal Full Moons Occur," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly 
Statement, October, 1900 ; Fairbanks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical 
Review, November, 1900; Frazer, "The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," Fort- 
nightly Review, October and November, 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 
II (1900), see Lndex, s. v. "Feasts;" I. Abrahams, article "New Moon," Hastings' 
Dictionary of the Bible (1900); I. Benzinger, article "Feasts," Encyclopcedia Biblica 
(1901); Willis, The Worship of the Old Covenant, pp. 190-214; Watson, Cambridge 
Companion to the Bible, pp. 411-17; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. II, 
pp. 648 f. ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), see Indtx, 
s. v. " Feasts." 

J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686), III, Diss, viii; J. 
Meyer, De festis Hebraeorum (1724); F. C. Baur, "Ueber die ursprungliche Bedeu- 
tung des Passahfestes und des Beschneidungsritus," Tubinger Zeitschrift, 1832, I, 
40-124; idem, "Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des mosaischen Cultus," 
ibid., 1832, III, 123-92 ; Vatke, Die Religion des Alien Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, pp. 
492-8 ; J. F. L. George, Die dlteren jiidischen Feste( 1835); H. Ewald, in Gottingischer 
Gelehrter Anzeiger, 1835, pp. 2025 f.; 1836, pp. 678 f.; H. Ewald, in fahrbucher 
der biblischen Wissenschaft, Vol. IV, pp. 131 f.; VIII, p. 223; IX, pp. 257 f.; F. Hitzig, 
Ostern und Pfingsten (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. II, 
pp. 664 ff.; H. Ewald, " De feriarum hebraearum origine et ratione," Zeitschrift fur 
die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. Ill (1840), pp. 410-41; H. Hupfeld, De primi- 
tiva et vera festorum apud Hebraeos ratione ex legum Mosaicarum eruenda (1851-65); 
Redslob, Die biblischen Angaben iiber Stiftung und Grund der Passahfeier (1856); 
W. Schultz, "Die innere Bedeutung der alttestamentlichen Feste," Deutsche Zeit- 
schrift fur christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben, 1 857, pp. 23-30; Joh. 
Bachmann, Die Festgesetze des Pentateuch aufs neue kritisch untersucht (1858); 
Dillmann, article "Feste," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon (1869); H. Oort, "De groote 
Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. X (i8j 6), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, in 
Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. 1 ff . ; idem, Abhandlungen iiber die Pentateuch- 
Gesetze, Vol. I (1878); idem, in Magazin fur die Wissenschaft des Judenthu ins, 1879, PP- 
99 ff . ; Franz DELITZSCH, in Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches 
Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83,621 ff . ; Kuenen, in Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. 



106 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

XVII (1883), pp. 207-12 ; MtJLLER, Kritischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach- 
Mazzothfestes (1883); Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und 
seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vo\. Ill (1883) 
pp. 178-85; Orelli, articles "Passah," "Pfingstfest," Realencyklopadie fiir protestan- 
tische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Franz Delitzsch, article "Passah,' 
Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Riehm, article " Feste,' 
Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Orelli, article "Ver- 
sohnungstag," Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1885); 
De Lagarde, "Purim; ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte," Mittheilungen, Vol. II 
(1887), pp. 378 ff.; IV, p. 147, note I; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums 
(=Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887), pp. 75-98; B. Stade, Geschichte des 
Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 497-503; II, pp. 182, 258-60; I. Benzinger, "Das 
Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift filr die alttestament- 
liche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; RlEHM, Alttestamentliche Theologie 
(1889), pp. 121-3; H. Zimmern, "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes," 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1 89 1, pp. 157-69; Smend, Lehrbuch 
der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1 899), see Index, s. v. 
"Feste;" W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 
138-203; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 464-78; Eerdmans, 
" Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, 
Vol. IX (1894), pp. 290 f . ; S. Karppe, "Melanges de critique biblique et d'assyrio- 
logie," Revue semitique, Vol. II (1894), pp. 146-51 ; Dillmann, Alttestamentliche 
Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Feste," "Passah;" K. Marti, Geschichte der 
israeliiischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v. "Feste," " Pesach," "Laubhuttenfest," 
etc.; F. Buhl, "Gottesdienstliche Zeiten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopadie fiir 
protestantische Theologie und Kirche (1899); Schaefer, Das Passah- Mazzoth Test 
(1900); Erbt, Purimsage in der Bibel (1900); Mossa, " Bedeutung des Passahfestes," 
Saat auf Hoffnung, 1900, No. 2; Riedel, " Miscellen 5. 6.: JICS, rClCH flXEi," 
Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX (1900), pp. 319-32; B. 
Stade, "Nachwort zu Lie. W. Riedel's 5. Miscelle : "OS," ibid., pp. 333-7; C. 
Brockelmann, " Das Neujahrsfest der Jezidis," Zeitschrift der Deulschen Morgen- 
Idndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. LV (1901), pp. 388 ff. 

§107. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Consider the few references to the celebration of feasts and feast 
days in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 4:7; 81:3; and note especially the 
so-called Psalms of Ascents, viz., 120-134, and their use in worship. 10 

2. Put together the references to feasts in the books of Maccabees 
viz.: 1 Mace. 1 : 39, 45 ; 4 : 52-59 ; 7 : 49 ; 10 : 34 ; 13 : 50-52 ; 2 Mace 
1 : 9, 18; 2:9, 16; 6: 6f.; 7 : 42 ; 8 : 33 ; 10 : 5-8 ; 12 : 31 f.; 15 : 36 
and make such a statement as the material thus examined will warrant 

3. Consider the principal references to feasts in the New Testa 
ment, viz.: Matt. 26:2, 5, 17 ff.; 27:15; Mark 14: if., 12, 14, 16 

10 Cf Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms — A New English Translation, p 
210; Kirkpatrick, The Psalms, Books II, ///("Cambridge Bible"), p. xxv ; Mur 
RAY, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 292-5 ; PEROWNE, Book of Psalms, Vol. I 
pp.86f.; Smith, "The Songs of the Ascent," Expository Times, November, 1900. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 107 

15:6; Luke 2:411".; 22:1-15; 23:17; John 2:13, 23; 4:45; 
5:1; 6:4; 7:2-14,37; 10:22; 11 : 55 f -; 12:1,12,20; 13:1,29; 
18:28,39; 19:14; 1 Cor. 5 : 7 ; Heb. 11:28. 

4. Take up for critical study the principal Hebrew words used to 

designate the feasts, viz.: HCB , jfi, 5TO21D jF! , F^pJl jH ; jT\ 

"f b»n ; rrocn :<n ; -ann ; rtiSB ; T d^b ; etc. 

5. Compare, in a very general way, the usage concerning feasts 
among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points 
of similarity and difference. 11 

6. Consider the place of feasts among the Assyrians, noticing 
especially the great number of them and the many points of similarity 
existing between the usages of Assyrian feasts and those of Hebrew 
feasts, e: g. t the pervading spirit of joyousness, the agricultural con- 
nection of some of them, the similarity between the feast of Zag- 
muk and the Jewish New Year's festival, and the Babylonian origin of 
the Feast of Purim. 12 

7. Study the Hebrew feasts in their relation to (a) the Arabic feasts 
or pilgrimages, (b) the Canaanite agricultural feasts. 13 

8. Consider comparatively the three great factors entering into 
and controlling the origin and development of feasts, viz., the element 
involved in a nomadic or pastoral life, that in an agricultural life, and 
that in a city life. 

9. Consider (1) the conception of God which had come to be 
supreme in Israel after the exile, viz., holiness; (2) the relation of 
this conception to the teaching concerning sin prevalent in the same 
period ; and (3) the influences of these conceptions upon the devel- 
opment of the feast system. 

" See W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic; Fair- 
banks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, November, 1900; Frazer, 
''The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," Fortnightly Review, October and Novem- 
ber, 1900; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. 
"Festivals." 

12 Cf especially Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see 

Index, s. v. "Festivals." 

*3See Snouck Hurgronje, Het Mekkaansche Fest; Doughty, Travels in Arabia 
Deserta; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums ; and other literature cited 
in § 106. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH AND KINDRED 
INSTITUTIONS, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. 

§108. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Early Period, 
/. <?., as described in (a) the Covenant Code, (b) the historical material 
of J and E, (c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and 
Kings, and (d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, 
note i). 1 

1. The law of the sabbath. 2 
Exod. 34 : 21 ; 20 : 8-1 1 ; 23 : 12. 

2. Customs connected with the sabbath. 
2 Kings 4:23; 11 : 5, 7, 9. 

3. Attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath. 
Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. 1:13. 

4. The law of the sabbatical year. 
Exod. 23 : iof. ; 21 : 2-1 1. 

§ 109. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider, in examining the statements made concerning the 
sabbath, (1) why the sabbath is the only religious institution men- 
tioned in the decalogue; (2) the first word, remember, and compare 
the first word in Deut. 5:12, observe. (3) Was either of these in any 
sense a warning equivalent to "take care," "be on the lookout for"? 
(4) What is the logical relation of the fourth commandment to the 
third, second, and first ? Does this consist in its having originally 
had to do with the deity, as do the preceding ? (5) Are there other 
variations between the two forms of the commandment given in Exod., 
chap. 20, and Deut., chap. 5 ? What are the variations? How shall 
we explain the existence of any variations at all ? Is it possible that 
Exod. 20 : 9-1 1 and Deut. 5 : 13—15 are later additions made at differ- 
ent times to an earlier form, which, as in the case of the sixth, seventh, 
and eighth commandments, consisted of only two or three words, 

1 The following references are from E : Exod. 20 : 8-10 ; 23:10-12; 21:2-11; 
the only reference in J is Exod. 34 : 21. 

2 References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 

108 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH 1 09 

" Observe (or remember) the sabbath day to keep it holy"? 3 (6) What 
was involved in the command to keep it holy ? (7) What may be said 
of the antiquity of the sabbath ? Was it probably observed by the 
Hebrews in Egypt ? (8) Was it originally connected with the new 
moon ? (9) What are the chief considerations offered to show that it 
was originally a day for securing the good-will of the deity, i. e., a day 
on which Jehovah rested from his anger, and was, therefore, more 
easy to propitiate ; a day, however, which might prove to be unfavor- 
able, but which might be changed to a favorable day by doing or not 
doing certain things? 4 (10) What, if this view is adopted, would be 
understood in particular to be the meaning of the word rest? of the 
word observe? (11) How did such strong emphasis come to be placed 
upon the idea of cessation from labor ? 

2. In respect to the usages which connected themselves with the 
sabbath, consider (1) the custom of visiting the man of God on the sab- 
bath ; (2) the custom of dividing the temple guard according as it came 
in or went out on the sabbath ; (3) other early (?) customs, codified 
in later times, e.g., remaining inside the house (Exod. 16 : 29), kindling 
no fire (Exod. 35 : 3), no gathering of wood for the fire (Numb. 15 : 32- 
36), no baking or cooking (Exod. 16:23). (4) So far as the early 
records are concerned, are there any other ideas than those of cessa- 
tion from labor and of humanitarian motive? 

3. What is to be gathered from the few allusions to the sabbath 
made by the prophets? (1) What are the people desiring to make of 
the sabbath, according to Amos? What restraint is evidently upon 
them? (2) Does Hosea's statement seem to place the sabbath in the 
same category with days of rejoicing and mirth? (3) What is the 
significance of the frequent association (as in Isa. 1 : 13) of the sabbath 
with the new moon ? 

4. Consider (1) regulations relating to the release of Hebrew 
servants after six years of labor ; did this imply a regularly recurring 
seventh year in which all servants were released ? Had this any- 
thing to do with a sabbatical year ? (2) The regulations prescribing 
that the crop of every seventh year shall be given to the poor and 
the beasts ; does the regulation say that all land was to lie fallow in the 

3 This is the view held, for example, by Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. II, p. 159 ; 
DlLLMANN, Exodus, p. 201; Speaker's Commentary, p. 336; DRIVER, Introduction, 
etc., p. 34; Briggs, Higher Criticism of. the Hexateuch, pp. 181— 7 ; Marti, Ge- 
schichte der israelitischen Religion; et al. 

4 Jastrow, American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52. 



110 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

same year ? Was this the recognition of a sabbatical year ? (3) The 
motives underlying these regulations. 

§ 1 10. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will indicate 
the most important factors entering into the significance of the sab- 
bath, and its characteristics as it appears in the earliest period. 

§111. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Middle Period, 
i. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic 
prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel 
and Kings. 5 

1. The law of the sabbath in the Deuteronomic decalogue. 
Deut. 5 : 12-15. 

2. The attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath. 

Jer. 17 : 19-27 ; Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 6 ; 58 : 13, 14 ; 66 : 23 ; Lam. 1:7; 2:6. 

3. The law of the sabbatical year. 
Deut. 15 : 1-18 ; 31 : 10. 

4. Release of slaves in Jeremiah. 
Jer. 34:8-17. 

§ 1 1 2. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider now in detail the Deuteronomic version of the sabbath 
law, including (1) the word observe, (2) the reference to Jehovah's 
former command (vs. 12), (3) the provision for the rest of the servants, 
(4) the reason given for the observance of the sabbath, viz., the deliv- 
erance from the bondage of Egypt; is this an implication that the 
sabbath was not observed by the Israelites in Egypt ? How is it to 
be reconciled with the reason given in Exod. 20 : 11 ? (5) the effect 
upon the observance of the sabbath of the centralization of worship at 
Jerusalem ; would this not take away the ritualistic observance and 
emphasize the humanitarian idea? 

2. In an examination of the prophetic and historical allusions to 
the observance of the sabbath, consider (1) the small number of such 
references ; is there any satisfactory reason ? (2) the several items said 
by Jeremiah to have been commanded by Jehovah, viz., (a) as to bur- 
dens, (b) as to work, (c) as to hallowing the day; (3) the attitude of 
the people (Jer. 17 123); (4) the promises and threats in reference to 
its observance (Jer. 17 : 24-27) ; (5) the position assigned to the sabbath 
in connection with the observance of the covenant (Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 6); 
(6) the meaning of the phrases from doing thy pleasure, and call the 
sabbath a delight (Isa.. 58: 13), and the rewards offered ; (7) the sabbath 

5 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron- 
omy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I I 

as a time, like the new moon, for worship (Isa. 66 : 23); (8) the forget- 
ting of the sabbath in the exile. 

3. Consider, in comparison with the regulations cited above 
(§§108, 4; 109,4), the Deuteronomic regulations concerning (1) the 
year of release of debts : (a) to whom it shall and shall not apply; (&) 
does it mean that the debt, if not paid, will be forgiven or become 
outlawed ; or that no interest will be exacted during this seventh year ; 
or that no proceedings will be taken against the debtor during that 
year ? (c) the reward promised ; (d) the motive for this law ; (<?) does 
it imply an advanced commercial development ? (/) is the year a 
fixed seventh year ? (g) would it encourage or discourage business ? 
(2) the regulations for the release of the Hebrew servant, rioting the 
slight variations from the law given in Exodus; (3) whether Deuteron- 
omy has any regulation concerning the rest of the land (cf. Exod. 
23 : 10 f.); (4) the reading of the law prescribed for the Feast of Tab- 
ernacles during the year of release at the end of every seven years. 

4. Consider the points involved in the story of the release of slaves 
in Jeremiah's time. 

§113. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement showing the 
nature of the changes which are being made, and the general trend. 

§ 114. The Sabbath as Described by Ezekiel. 

1. The purpose of the sabbath. 
Ezek. 20 : 12, 20. 

2. The sabbath a holy day. 
Ezek. 44 : 24. 

3. General profanation of the sabbath. 
Ezek. 20 : 13-24 ; 22 : 8, 26 ; 23 : 38. 

4. Special worship and sacrifices for the sabbath. 
Ezek. 45:17; 46 : 1-5, 12. 

5. The year of liberty. 
Ezek. 46 : 17. 

§115. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. What, according to Ezekiel, was the original purpose which the 
sabbath was to subserve ? Compare the purpose also of the statutes 
(Ezek. 20: n), and the way in which both statutes and sabbaths had 
been treated by Israel. 

2. What, in Ezekiel's time, was meant by hallowing or keeping holy 
the sabbath ? 



I 1.2 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

3. What was meant by profaning and hiding the eyes from the 
sabbath ? Did the Israelites simply ignore it, or did they intentionally 
do that which brought it into disrepute ? 

4. Note the special character of the offerings indicated in Ezekiel's 
scheme for the sabbath day. What was the significance of this ? Con- 
sider how the sabbath is still associated with the new moon. 

5. Note the contents of the single reference in Ezekiel to the year 
of release or liberty. 

§ 116. Constructive Work. — Summarize the position of Ezekiel, and 
indicate the relation of Ezekiel's attitude on this question to his gen- 
eral place in prophecy. 

§ 1 ] 7. Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Later Period, i. e., as 
described in (a) the laws of the Levitical Code, (b) by the priestly 
prophets, and (c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, 
Chronicles. 

1. The law of the sabbath. 6 

Lev. 23 : 3 ; Exod. 31 : 12-17 ; 35 = i~3- 

2. Special days observed as sabbaths. 

Lev. 23 : 7I, 24-32, 39 ; 16 : 29-31 ; Numb. 28 : 11-15, 18,25 f • I 2 9° i> 7> 
12, 35- 

3. Reasons assigned for the observance of the sabbath. 
Gen. 2 : 2 f . ; Exod. 20 : 1 1 ; 31:12 f., 17. 

4. Special offerings made on the sabbath. 

Lev. 23 : 38; Numb. 28:9!; 1 Chron. 23 : 31; 2 Chron. 2:418:13; 31:3; 
Neh. 10 : 33. 

5. Emphasis laid on observance of the sabbath. 

Lev. 19:3^, 30(2/ 26:20/ Exod. 16:22-30; 31:14-16; 35:2; Numb. 
15 : 32-36 ; Neh. 10:31; 13 : 15-22. 

6. Use of the sabbath as a fixed point of time. 

Lev. 23 : 15 f.; 24 : 8 ; 1 Chron. 9 ; 32 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 4, 8. 

7. Sabbath made known on Sinai. 
Neh, 9:14. 

8. Law of the sabbatical year. 
Lev. 25 : 1-7 ; 26 : 34, 35. 

9. Exile conceived of as a sabbath for the land. 
Lev. 26 : 34 f . ; 2 Chron. 36 : 21. 

10. Law of year of jubilee. 

Lev., chap. 25 ; 27 : 17-24 ; Numb. 36 : 4. 

6 References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II3 

§ 118. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider (1) the form of the sabbath observance which must 
have existed during the exile, viz., the humanitarian and not the ritu- 
alistic; the adaptation of this to the possibilities of worship in this 
period, and the distinctive character which it must have given the 
Jewish community. (2) What is the meaning of the new phrases sol- 
emn rest, holy convocation, sabbath unto Jehovah? (3) What is the 
purpose of the sabbath (cf. Ezekiel) ? the penalty for its non-obser- 
vance ? the connection between sign and perpetual covenant ? (4) The 
reason assigned for its establishment (cf. Exod. 20: n)? (5) Why 
should the kindling of fire have been prohibited in particular? 

2. Note how the idea of rest now attaches itself to other days, viz., 
first day of the Passover, first day of the Feast of Trumpets, first and 
eighth days of the Feast of Booths, the Day of Atonement. 

3. Consider the reasons assigned for the sabbath's observance: (1) 
because God rested on the seventh day; was there any connection 
between this reason and the fact that the teaching concerning God as 
Creator is greatly emphasized in the exilic and post-exilic periods ? 
(2) because it is to serve as a sign between God and Israel ; did this 
mean that it distinguished Israel from other nations which did not 
observe it ? 

4. Note the details and significance of the special offering made on 
the sabbath. 

5. Consider the rigidity with which the sabbath law was now to be 
enforced : (1) on the same plane with the honoring of father and mother, 
and the reverencing of a sanctuary; (2) penalty of death imposed 
for non-observance ; (3) the story of the man who gathered sticks on 
the sabbath day and suffered death by stoning ; (4) the gathering of a 
double amount of manna on the sixth day and the absence of manna 
on the sabbath ; (5) the agreement to refrain from commercial deal- 
ings on the 1 sabbath ; (6) Nehemiah's judicial procedure in the case of 
those violating the law. 

6. Note how the sabbath, having become a fixed date, every seventh 
day, is used as a point from which to calculate other feasts. 

7. Note the tradition preserved by Nehemiah that the sabbath was 
(first ?) made known on Sinai. 

8. Study the details of the law of the sabbatical year: (1) Is all 
agriculture to be remitted ? (2) What is to be the disposition of the 
fruit and grain that grows of itself? (3) Was Palestine a land subject 
to severe famines? If so, could such a law have been observed ? 



114 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(4) Could it have been observed while the people were mainly agri- 
culturists, 1. <?., before trade and commerce had come in ? How would 
the people living in rural districts spend their time ? (5) Is there any 
evidence that it was observed before the exile ? or that it was not {cf. 
Lev. 26 : 34, 35)? (6) Did not its observance in later times cause 
great distress (1 Mace. 6:49, 53)? (7) What connection was there 
between this sabbatical year, with its fixed time of recurrence, and the 
year of release for slaves and debt in Deuteronomy (§§ 111,3; ^2, 3)? 

9. Consider the idea suggested that the entire period of exile is a 
period of sabbaths, now enforced because formerly unobserved. 

10. Concerning the Year of Jubilee, consider (1) the meaning of the 
name ; (2) the time fixed ; was it the fiftieth year following the seventh 
sabbatical year, that is, was it the second of two successive years of 
rest? or did it coincide with the forty-ninth year? (3) the procedure; 
was it, in general, like the sabbatical year ? (4) what was the regulation 
concerning sowing, reaping, gathering ? (5) concerning the restoration 
of real property ? (6) the special provision concerning dwelling-houses 
in walled cities ; the houses of the Levites ; (7) the regulation concern- 
ing Hebrew and non-Hebrew slaves ; (8) concerning land dedicated to 
Jehovah and its redemption ; (9) concerning the inheritance of daugh- 
ters as affected by these laws. (10) How were the people to live dur- 
ing this period of abstinence from work? (11) Is it possible that the 
law of the jubilee year is an outgrowth of the law of the sabbath ? (12) 
What led to the choice of the fiftieth year ? (13) Is there any evidence 
that this law existed before the time of the exile ? (14) Was the Year 
of Jubilee ever observed ? (15) Was it a practical law, or an ideal law? 
(16) What, in general, is meant by ideal legislation ? 

§ 119. Constructive Work. 

Prepare a statement including (a) an explanation of the fact that 
such an exceedingly large place is occupied by the sabbatical system 
in the legislation and thought of this period; {b) an enumeration of 
the various points of difference between the laws and usages of this 
period and those of the Deuteronomic period ; and (c) a brief study of 
the development of the sabbatical idea in the course of Israel's history. 

§ 120. Literature to be Consulted. 

Jennings, Jewish Antiquities (1808), pp. 320 f.; Ewald, History of Israel (1st ed. 
1843-59, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 88 L; II, pp. 209 1; V, pp. 166 f., 343, 400, 416; 
Idem, Antiquities of Israel {1%$$, transl. 1876), pp. 97-107; Kalisch, Commentary on 
Exodus (1855), i- n l° c - 20:8-11; Hessey, On the Sabbath ("Bampton Lecture," 
i860, 3d ed. 1866); GlLFiLLAN, On the Sabbath (1862); Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship 
of the Old Testament (1862, transl. 1863), pp. 342 ff.; JOHNSTONE, Sunday and the 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I 5 

Sabbath (1863); R. S. Poole, article "Chronology," see section on "Sabbatical and 
Jubilee Years," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Cox, 
Literature of the Sabbath Question (1865); Schultz, Old Testament Theology •( 1st ed. 
1869, transl. 1892), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath," "Sabbatical Year," "Jubilee;" 
Kuenen, The Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1894), Vol. I, pp. 286 f.; II, pp. 
278-84 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. I (1873), PP- I ^4 f.; Oehler, Theology of 
the Old Testament (1st ed. 1873, 3d e d. I ^9 1 , transl. 1883), pp. 328-45 ; Sayce, 
Records of the Past, Vol. VII (1876), p. 157; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the 
History of Israel (1878), pp. 112-20 ; J. Fenton, Early Hebrew Life (1880), pp. 24-6, 
29-32, 64-70; W. D. Love, "The Sabbath, etc.," Bibliotheca Sacra, 1880, pp. 153-78, 
355-89,419-39, 661-85; 1881, pp. 254-85,524-52, SCHRADER, Cuneifortn Inscrip- 
tions and the Old Testament (2d ed. 1882, transl. 1885), Vol. I, pp. 18 ff.; W. R. 
Smith, Prophets of Israel (1st ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), pp. 385 f.; Francis Brown, 
"The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700; 
Dillmann, Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1886, transl. 1897 f.), in loc. chap. I; 
Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1886, transl. 1891), 
Div. II, Vol. II, pp. 96-105 ; W. R. Smith, articles "Jubilee," " Sabbath," Encyclopedia 
Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (" Hibbert Lectures," 
1887), pp. 70-77; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), Vol. I, pp. 151, 366; 
II, pp. 225, 306 ; McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and 
Ecclesiastical Literature (1891), articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," and "Sabbatical 
Year;" Jensen, "The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the Sabbath," 
Sunday School Times, January 16, 1892; Alice M. Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan 
New England (7th ed. 1893); F. Garden, article "Sabbatical Year," Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); S. Clark (revised by J. M. Fuller), article 
"Jubilee," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); W. E. Addis, Documents of 
the Hextateuch, 2 vols. (1893-98), see Index, s. v. "Jubilee," "Sabbath," etc.; Sayce, 
Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893), pp. 74-7; Montefiore, 
The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1893), see Index, s. v. 
"Sabbath;" Davis, Genesis and Semitic Tradition (1894), PP- 2 3 _ 35 '■> Driver, A 
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), PP- I 74 _ 8i; Hirschfeld, 
*' Remarks on the Etymology of Sabbath," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, pp. 
354 f.; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1897), see Index, s. v. " Sabbath; " 
Morris Jastrow, Jr., "The Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American 
Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 312-52 ; Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after 
the Exile (1898), pp. 66 f.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus — 
a New English Translation (Polychrome Bible, 1898), pp. 97-100 ; E. A. W. Budge, 
Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 224-8; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and 
Customs (1899), p. 245 ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People During the Babylonian, 
Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath;" Sinker, Essays and 
Studies (1900); J. Estlin-Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, The Hexa- 
teuch (1900), Vol. II, p. 112 ; T. F. Wright, " Sabbath," New Church Review, Janu- 
ary, 1900; W. R. Smith and I. Benzinger, article "Jubilee," Encyclopedia Biblica 
{1901); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill (1901), pp. 376 f.; 
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " Hebrew and Babylonian Accounts of Creation," Jewish 
Quarterly Review, Vol. XIII (1901), pp. 648-50; H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the 
Sabbath (Golden Lectures for 1900-1901); C. F. Kent, Biblical World, Vol. XVIII 
(1901), pp. 344-8. 



Il6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

J. Spencer, De le gibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686); Wagenseil, De anno 
*ubilaeo Hebraeorum (1700); J. H. Mai, Maimonidis tract, de juribus anni septimi et 
■iubilaei (1708); Van der Hardt, De jubilaeo Mosis (1728); Reineccius, De origine 
iubilaeorum (1730); Carpzov, De anno jubilaeo (1730); Hebenstreit, De sabbato 
ante leges Mosis existente (1748); Meyer, De temporibus et diebus Hebraeorum (1755), 
pp. 341-60; Michaelis, Comm. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke, 
Novum systema chronologiae fundamentalis (1778); Hug, " Ueber das mosaische 
Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fiir das Erzbisthmn, I, I; De Wette, Lehrbuch der 
hebrdisch-jiidischen Archdologie (1st ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 211 f.; Baur, "Der 
hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tubinger Zeit- 
schrift, 1832, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Allen Tesiamentes (1835), Vol. I, 
pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G. Wolde, De anno 
Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp. 
572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realwbrterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles 
"Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 
Vol. I (1847), pp. 410 ff.; Brugsch, ibid., Vol. Ill (1849), pp. 271 ff.; Proudhon,. 
De la celebration du Dimanche ( 1850); Oschwald, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier (1850); 
Liebetrut, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld> 
Geschichie des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saalschutz, Archdologie der 
Hebrder, Vol. II (1856), pp. 224 ff., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und 
fubelperiode (1857); Hupfeld, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis, Part III (1858); 
Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (1st ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), Vol. I, §§ 77 
ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; Kubel* 
" Die sociale und volkswirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo- 
logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in 
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, "Der babylonische Ursprung 
der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff.,. 
Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and "Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon y 
Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol.1 (1875), pp. 431 ff.; 
Klostermann, "Uber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische 
Studien und Kritiken, 1 880, pp. 720-48; DiLLMANN, Die Biicher Exodus und 
Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; BuDDE, Die biblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 493 
ff.; Lotz, Quaestiones de historia sabbathi (1883); Hoffmann, " Versuche zu Amos,'* 
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler, 
articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und Jobeljahr," revised by VON Orelli, in Real- 
encyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1884); Riehm, articles 
"Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," "Sabbathjahr " in Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen 
Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 f«)j Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I 
(1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.; 
Jensen, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Der 
Mischnatraktat "Sabbath " herausgegeben und erkldrt (1890); Baentsch, Das Bundes- 
buch — Ex. XX. 22 — XXIII. 33 (1892), pp. 115 f.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament- 
lichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" 
and "Jubeljahr;" Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I, 
pp. 217, 333; II, pp. 138-44, 159-72; Benzinger, Hebraische Archdologie (1894), pp. 
201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; Gunkel, Schbpfung und Chaos (1895), pp. 13L, 114-17 ; DiLL- 
MANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Lndex, s. v. "Jobeljahr" 
and "Sabbat;" Marti, Geschichte der israelilischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v. 






LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH 11^ 

"Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr;" Holzinger, Exodus {Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum 
Alien Testament), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus (Kurzer 
Hand-Com?nentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat," 
(1901). 

See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees," 
chap. 50. 

§ 121. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its 
usage. 

2. Examine the following texts in which the root PQT2) occurs, with 
a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22; 
Exod. 16:30; 12 : 15; 23: 12; 34:21 ; Josh. 5:12; Isa. 13: n; 14:5; 

30 : 7 ; Ps. 8 : 3 ; Prov. 20 : 3. 

3. Study the passages in which the word "pFQIZJ (ordinarily trans- 
lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31; 
25:4; Exod. 16:23; 35:2; 31:15, with a view to determining its 
meaning. 

4. Examine the words bn^ ("jubilee"), 1111 ("liberty"). 

5. From an examination of 1 Mace. 1 : 39, 43, 45 ; 2 : 32-41 ; 
6 :49; 9:43^ 10: 34; 2 Mace. 5:24-26; 6:6, 11; 12 .-38; 15 : 1-5, 
prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times. 

6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the 
Psalms (cf. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not? 

7. From a study of the following references from the New Testa- 
ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament 
writers toward the sabbath: Matt. 12 : 1 f., 5, 8, 10 ff.; 24: 20 ; 28 : 1 ; 
Mark 1:21; 2 : 23 f., 27 f.; 3 : 2, 4 ; 6:2; 15 : 42 ; 16:1; Luke 4 : 16, 

31 ; 6 : 1 ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff.; 14 : 1, 3, 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5:91., 
16, 18 ; 7 : 22 f.; 9 : 14, 16 ; 19:31; Acts 1:12; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44; 
15:21; 18:4; 21:27; 28:14; Col. 2:16; Heb. 4:4; Rev. 1 : 10. 

8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among 
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is 
any possible connection between these days and the sabbath. 7 

9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians, 

1 Cf. Maspero, Romans et Poesies au Papyrus Harris, No. joo, pp. 38 f. 41 ; 
Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Vannee egyptienne ; Wiedemann, 
Religion of the Egyptians,^. 263 f. ; Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew 
Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, p. 350, note 1 16; BUDGE, Egyptian 
Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff. 
(in English translation = The Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. Cohen, 
"Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," Zeitgeist (Milwaukee, Wis.), 
1881, pp. 4ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel, 



Il8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, and determine whether 
there is any connection between these days and the sabbath. 8 

10. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show 
(a) its origin, (3) its various stages of development, (c) its social bear- 
ings, {d) its religious significance, (e) its idealism, (/) its practical 
character. 

ii. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new- 
moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf. 

§§97 (9)> io 4 (4)- 

12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number 
seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in 
the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew 
verb "to swear, take oath" (literally = " to seven oneself" or "be sev- 
ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc. 

13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the 
" Lord's day " of the New Testament, (a) as to the day observed, (6) as 
to the spirit characteristic of the observance ? 

Vol. I, pp. 262 f. ; Lepsius, Chronologic der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 ff. ; 
Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, Vol. Ill, p. 271 ; 
Nowack, Hebraische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141 f. 

8 Cf. Morris Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American 

Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life 

and Customs, p. 245 ; Schrader, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, PP- 343~53"> 

Francis Brown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review, 

1882, pp. 688-700. (See also § 120.) 



CHAPTER X. 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED 

COMPARATIVELY. 

§ 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, i. e., as described 
in (a) the Covenant Code ; (b) the historical material of J and E ; (c) 
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and 
(d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i). 1 

1. Traces of totemism. 

Gen. 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26. 

2. Distinction between clean and unclean is ancient. 
Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20. 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Gen. 35 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 11:4; 2 Kings 5 : 10-14 ; Isa. 30 : 22. 

4. Non-Israelitish lands are unclean. 
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9: 3. 

5. Forbidden food. 

Exod. 23 : igb; 34 : 26b; 22 : 31. 2 

6. Cleanness is necessary to participation in religious exercises. 
Gen. 35:2; Exod. 3:5; 19:10; 1 Sam. 20 : 26 ; Judg. 13:4, 7, 14; 
Isa. 6 : 5 ; 2 Kings 10 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 6:14. 

7. Attitude of prophets toward clean and unclean. 
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3; Isa. 1:16; 6:5; 30 : 22. 

§ 123. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Consider (1) the meaning of "every shepherd is an abomination 
unto the Egyptians," and what is involved in the statement; (2) the 
meaning of "sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians;" (3) whether 
that which is called an " abomination " may have been something sacred 
or holy, i. e., something worshiped, for example, an animal ; (4) whether, 
as a matter of fact, there existed in Israel cases of special association 
between certain kinds of animals and certain tribes or certain towns; 3 

1 The following references are from J : Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20 ; 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 
8 : 26 ; 34 : 263. The following are from E : Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 22 : 31b; 23 : igb. 

2 These references are from the Covenant Code. 

*Cf. Nun (Fish), Exod. 33:11; Terah (Ibex), Gen. 11 : 27 ; Leah (Wild Cow), 
Gen. 29 : 16; and see R. G. Murison, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblicai 
World, Vol. XVIII, pp. 170 ff. 

119 



120 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(5) whether there are not cases in which animals are regarded as 
having superhuman power; 4 (6) whether the second commandment 
does not imply that the Israelites were addicted to animal-worship ; 
(7) whether actual historical proof of this is not found in the story of 
the worship of the calf (Exod. 32 : 7-24) and of the brazen serpent 
(Numb. 21 : 8 f.; 2 Kings 18:4); (8) the meaning and significance of 
totemism. s 

2. Note (1) the distinction between clean and unclean animals made 
in the narrative of the deluge, and consider (2) whether the words 
unclean and sacred may not be used synonymously; that is, was not 
the unclean thing (whether animal or person or object) something in 
connection with which " a superhuman agency of a dangerous kind " 
was supposed to be acting, and which, therefore, was, from one point 
of view, sacred, from another, unclean ? (3) whether this is not to be 
closely associated with the usage existing among many nations and 
called taboo? 

3. Consider the source of uncleanness in the case of (1) Jacob's 
household, (2) Bathsheba, (3) Naaman the Syrian, (4) the graven 
images (Isa. 30 : 22) ; and formulate a statement which will {a) classify 
these sources and (&) explain the idea of uncleanness in each case. 

4. Consider the idea that for an Israelite any other land than his 
own was unclean, and explain the basis on which this idea rests. 

5. Note the prohibition of eating (1) a kid boiled in its mother's 
milk, 7 (2) the flesh torn of beasts ; and explain the significance of the 
usage in each case. Are there in the Covenant Code other prohibi- 
tions concerning the eating of food ? 

6. Explain (1) the "washing of garments" in Exod. 19:10; (2) the 
reason assigned by Saul for Jonathan's absence (1 Sam. 20:26); (3) 
the connection of "eating no unclean thing" with the Nazirite (Judg. 
13:4); (4) Isaiah's confession of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5); (5) the 
putting off of shoes (Exod. 3 : 5); (6) the use of the vestments (2 
Kings 10 : 22); (7) the use of the linen ephod (2 Sam. 6 : 14). 

7. How far were the current ideas concerning clean and unclean 

4 Cf. Gen. 3 : 1 £f.; Numb. 21:8 f.; Ezek. 8 : 10 f. 

s See especially J. G. Frazer, Totemism; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites 
(2d ed.), pp. 125 ff. ; and other literature cited in § 134. 

6 See especially J. G. Frazer, article " Taboo," Encyclopcedia Britannica ; W. R. 
Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 152 ff., 446 ff. 

7 See Kalisch, Commentary on Exod. 23:19^, and W. R. Smith, Religion of 
the Semites (2d ed.), p. 221. 






LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 121 

accepted by the prophets ? Consider, for example, (i) the view held 
concerning foreign lands; (2) the exhortation to wash and become 
clean (Isa. 1:6); (3) Isaiah's feeling concerning himself (6:5); (4) 
the treatment of graven images (Isa. 30: 22). 

§ 124. Constructive Work. — From the material furnished prepare a 
general statement upon the idea of the clean and unclean in the 
earliest period. 

§125. The Usages and Laws Concerning Clean and Unclean in the 
Middle Period, i. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the 
Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the 
books of Samuel and Kings. 8 

1. Traces of totemism. 

Deut. 32:17; 2 Kings 22:12; Jer. 36: 10; cf. 2 Kings 18:4 and 
Ezek. 8 : 7-12. 

2. Forbidden food. 

Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ff.; 14 : 3-21 ; 15 : 23. 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Deut. 21 : 22 f.; 23 : 10 f.; 23 : 12-14 '< 7 - 2 S f-5 J er - 16:18; Lam. 4 : 14 f. 

4. Cleanness necessary to participation in religious exercises. 
Deut. 12 : 15 ; 15 : 21 f.; 26 : 13 f.; Isa. 52 : 1, 11. 

5. Prophetic attitude toward clean and unclean. 

Jer. 2 : 7, 23 ; 13 : 27 ; 16 : 18 ; 33 : 8 ; Lam. 4 : 14 f.; Isa. 52 : 1, 11. 

§ 126. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Note that individuals and heads of clans still bear the names of 
animals, e.g., Shaphan (=Rock Badger), Achbor (=Mouse). What is 
the significance of this in view of the fact that as recently as the days 
of Hezekiah the image of a serpent was still being worshiped, and 
that Ezekiel testifies to the existence of similar worship just prior to 
the exile ? 

2. Consider (i) the regulation concerning the eating of blood, and 
the ground on which it rests; (2) whether in this case the principle of 
taboo is not clearly found ; (3) the general command concerning eat- 
ing anything "abominable:" (4) the animals which might be eaten, 
and their general characteristics; (5) the animals which might not be 
eaten, and their general characteristics ; (6) the general principles 
which seem to underlie the selection; (7) the character of a selection 
arising in this way ; (8) the fact that the number of clean quadrupeds 
is ten; (9) whether this distinction was something objective imposed 

8 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 



122 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

upon the people for a purpose (if so, was this purpose (a) to train the 
people in obedience, or (d) to provide hygienic dietary laws, or (c) to 
teach important religious truth by an allegorical method, or (d) to 
separate the Israelites from other nations, or (e) to prevent the wor- 
ship of certain animals ?); or, rather, something subjective, of gradual 
growth, and expressive of certain instinctive feelings (for example, (a) 
that of aversion, or (b) appreciation of utility or beauty, or (c) expe- 
rience of the use of this or that kind of flesh) ; or whether the origin 
is to be connected with some form or other of totemism ; (10) the 
absence of any list of clean and unclean animals in the Covenant Code, 
and the significance of so fully developed a list in the Deuteronomic 
Code. 

3. Consider (1) some of the sources of uncleanness as cited, e. g., 
the body of a man who has been hanged; issues of the body; graven 
images; "carcasses of detestable things;" contagion; and (2) the 
method suggested for purification. 

4. Note the necessity of cleanness on the part of one who is to 
engage in a religious exercise, and in this connection (1) the fact that 
the flesh of certain animals may be eaten alike by those who are clean 
and by those who are unclean; (2) the prohibition of the lame, the 
blind, or the blemished in sacrifice; (3) the synonymous use of the 
words "uncircumcised " and "unclean." 9 

5. Study the prophetic attitude toward infringement of the regu- 
lations concerning "clean and unclean," and the punishment which 
is to follow this infringement. How far do the prophets of this period 
seem to have shared the ideas of their times on this subject? Does 
their attitude relate to the minute particulars of the system, or to the 
general question of loyalty or obedience ? 

§ 127. Constructive Work. — Compare, in general, the minuteness 
of the regulations of this period in contrast with those of the earlier 
period ; characterize these regulations as a whole ; and consider whether 
they are (1) really new usages which had their origin after the formu- 
lation of the book of the covenant, or (2) old usages, for the most 
part, which are now codified for the first time ; (3) in the former case, 
whence may they be supposed to have come ? (4) in the latter case, 
to what influence are we to ascribe their codification ? 

§ 128. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in Ezekiel. 

1. Traces of totemism. 

Ezek. 8 -.7-12. 
9 For a further study of the subject of circumcision see §§ 164 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 23 

2. Forbidden foods. 
Ezek. 4:14= 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Ezek. 4:14; 22:24; 36:17,25,29,33; 37:23; 39:12,14,16,24; 
43:7-9; 44:25. 

4. Instruction concerning clean and unclean is an important part 
of the priestly function. 

Ezek. 22:26 ; 44 : 23. 

5. Everything connected with religion must be clean. 
Ezek. 22:26; 43:20-26; 44:25; 46:19-24. 

6. Methods of purification. 

Ezek. 36: 25 ; 43 : 18-26 ; 44 : 26 f. 

§129. Questions and Suggestions. — Ezekiel's intermediate position 
and the peculiar situation to which his work is addressed make the 
material of his sermons especially interesting. 

1. Consider the significance of the fact (1) that seventy elders are 
present, and that the idols (1. e., likenesses of reptiles and abominable 
beasts) are being worshiped ; (2) that the presiding priest was the head 
of one of the animal clans (viz., the Cony). Does this indicate that 
even in this late period animal-worship prevails ? 

2. Note Ezekiel's contention concerning his own cleanness, and 
the formulation of his idea of uncleanness. 

3. Consider the representations made by Ezekiel of uncleanness, 
including that of the land, and note the various occasions which give 
rise to uncleanness. 

4. Observe the part which the priest is to play in giving instruc- 
tion upon the subject of cleanness and uncleanness. 

5. (1) Note that "clean" now means "holy," "unclean" means 
"common;" to fail to make the proper distinction is to "profane" 
Jehovah; and (2) consider how this later and more developed idea has 
arisen out of the earlier. (3) Observe, also, that every act connected 
with a religious observance must be ceremonially clean. (4) Consider 
the bearing on this idea of the establishment of boiling-houses. 

6. Consider the methods by which purification from uncleanness 
might be secured. 

§ 130. Constructive Work. — Formulate the new phases and details 
of the idea of "clean and unclean" which appear in Ezekiel, and dis- 
cuss the relation of all this to Ezekiel's idea of God. 

§131. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in the 
Later Period, that is, as described in (a) the laws of the Levitical Code, 



124 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(b) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the priestly histories, e.g., Ezra, 
Nehemiah, Chronicles. 10 
i. Traces of totemism. 

Isa. 65 : 4 f. ; 66 : 1 7 ; Lev, 19 : 28. 

2. Forbidden food. 

Lev. 17 : 10-16 ; 19 : 26 ; 11 : 1-23, 29 f., 41-47 ; 7 : 16-19 \ 1 9 • 7 I 
7 : 22-27 I 3 : I 4~ I 7 ; Gen. 9 : 3 f.; Isa. 65 : 4 f. ; Dan. 1 : 8. 

3. Sources of uncleanness. 

Lev., chaps. 13 and 15 ; 20 : 20 f.; chap. 12 ; 18 : 19 ; 19 : 11-13 ; Numb. 

5 : 19, 28 ; 31 : 13 n\; 35 : 33 1; 5 : 1-4 ; 2 Chron. 34 : 5 ; Ezra 9:11; 
Neh. 13 :.g, 30 ; Josh. 22 : 17 ; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. 1 : 8. 

4. Uncleanness is contagious. 

Lev. 13:45!; 14:46!; 15:4-12, 19-23, 26 f.; 11:8, 24-28, 31-40; 
22 :4-6 ; 5 : 2 f.; 7 : 19 ; 6 : 10 f., 27-30 ; 19 :7~i6, 22 ; Hag. 2 : 10-14. 

5. Methods of purification. 

Lev., chaps. 14, 15 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 6 : 27 f.; 16 :ig ; Numb., chap. 19 ; 6 : 10-21 ; 
35:33 f-; 8 : 1-21 ; 31 : 13-24. 

6. Everything connected with religious acts must be clean. 

Lev. 10 : 14 ; 27 : 11, 27 ; chap. 21 ; 22 : 1-25 ; 7 : 19^-21 ; 4 : 11 f.; 

6 : 10 f.; 16 : 19 ; Numb. 6 : 6-9 ; 18 : 11, 15 ; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ; 

2 Chron. 23 : 19 ; 30 : 17-20 ; 29 : 15 f., 18 f.; Neh. 13 : 9, 22 ; Isa. 
66 : 20. 

7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the 
case of the Passover. 

2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14. 

8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean. 
Josh. 22 : 19 ; Ezra 9:11; Numb. 35 : 33 f.; Zech. 13:1 f. 

9. All foreigners are unclean. 

Isa. 35:8; Ezra 9:11 ; Neh. 13 : 30. 

10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of 
priestly functions. 

Lev. 10 : 10 f. ; 20 : 25 f. 

11. Traces of ancestor- worship. 
Lev. 19 : 28, 32. 

§ 132. Questions and Suggestions. 

1. Observe (1) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the 
sacrificial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals; did 
they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating 
the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues 

10 References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code of laws. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 25 

of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the 
old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these 
associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor- 
worship connected with totemism ? 

2. (1) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of 
food forbidden; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean 
animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2, 
and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his 
companions. 

3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi- 
cated in the writings of this period. 

4. Consider (1) the various cases of uncleanness (e. g., leprosy, 
plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or 
object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became 
unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its 
practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought 
into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ? 

5. Arrange and classify the various ways adopted in this period for 
securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general 
with the methods of the middle period. 

6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean- 
ness : (1 ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3) 
the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the 
ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days 
and other peoples; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere- 
monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of 
the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful- 
filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety 
and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ; 
(6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element 
found in the Psalter, which was largely the product of this period ; (7) 
the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which, 
indeed, permeated the ceremonial. 

7. Consider (1) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in 
the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the 
historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20. 

8. Observe that (1) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish 
land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has 
become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ? 

9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that 



126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by 
this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel- 
lenism. 

io- Observe (i) that it is now a most important function of the 
priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con- 
sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in 
this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved ; and 
(3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of 
their time and attention. 

11. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor- 
worship in (1) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is 
prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ? 

§133. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show 
the new points which characterize the later period in the development 
of the idea of the clean and unclean. 

§134. Literature to be Consulted. 

Henry Hayman, articles "Unclean Meats" and "Uncleanness," Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 1 44-60 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 
transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 1869 f.; 
Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch, 
Commentary on Leviticus, Part II ( 1 871), pp. I-163 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology 
(ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§ 142 f.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture 
(1871, 2d ed. 1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of 
Mankind {■$&. ed. 1878), pp. 284 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1879), Vol. I, 
p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, " Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the 
Arabs and in the Old Testament," Journal of Philology, Vol. IX (1880), pp. 75 ff.; 
Idem, Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem, 
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; Schurer, A History of the 
Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean 
and Unclean;" Joseph Jacobs, "Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament?" 
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, Vol. VIII (1885), pp. 39-41; ANDREW 
Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; Piepenbring, The Theology of the 
Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), PP- 73~9*» Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and 
Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Tabu," "Totem," etc.; Sayce^ 
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the 
Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean," 
"Totemism;" Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (1st ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G. 
Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature; 1887); Idem, articles 
"Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopedia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article 
"Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), Vol. XXI, p. 135; Idem, Religion of the Semites (1st ed. 
1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A, B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden 
Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. W. Davies, "Bible 
Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25 ; 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 127 

McClintock and Strong's Cyclopcedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias- 
tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and " Uncleanness " (1891); J. Lubbock, 
Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260 ; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews 
(Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), PP- 
55, 71, 131, 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy 
(1895), pp. 70, 164, 291 f.; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896), 
pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101 ; 
Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Animals," 
etc.; J. Hastings, article " Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); 
Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f., 662 f.; 
J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism," Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1859 ; 
Budge, Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 232 ff.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic 
Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A. 
SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica (1899); F.J. Schamberg, 
"The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, Vol. XIII (1899), pp. 
162-9 ; Paul Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib- 
lical Literature, Vol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note 113 ; McCurdy, article " Animal- 
Worship," Jewish Encyclopedia (1901); Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901), 
pp. 257-69 ; R. G. Murison, " Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol. 
XVIII (1901), pp. 176-84 ; E. Clodd, Myths and Dreams, pp. 99 f. 

Spencer, De le gibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (1727); Hebenstreit, De cura sanit. 
publ. (1783), Vol. II, pp. 15 f.; Beyer, De haemorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792); 
Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien 
und Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. II, 
pp. 159 ff., 462 ff.; Sommer, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367; Saalschutz, 
Das mosaische Recht mil Beriicksichtigung des spdtern judischen (1st ed. 1846, 1848; 
2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; Kurtz, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19 
zur Tilgung der Todesunremigkeit verordneten Ritus," Theologische Studien und 
Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ft 1 .; Danielssen et Boeck, Traite de la Spedalskhed [Nor- 
wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847); 
Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C. Wolff, 
"Die Lepra Arabum," in Virchow's Archiv fur path. Anatomie und Physiologie, 
Vol. XXVI (1861); S. Finaly, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der 
Bibel," Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); Schenkel, article 
" Reinigkeit," SCHENKEL's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); K6HLER, Lehrbuch der 
biblischen Geschichte, Vol. I (1875), PP- 409-19 ; L. Kotelmann, Die Geburtshilfe bei 
den alten Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur se?nilischen Religionsgeschichle, 
Vol.11 (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Frantz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus," 
Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3— 10; 
E. Konig, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und 
Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen," 
Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Frantz Delitzsch, 
article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid.; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage 
in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL 
(1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.; 
Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums (= Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, 111, 1st 
ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 52, 106, 156, 176ft.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien iiber 
Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 34-40 



128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Altlestamentliche 
Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892), see Index, 
s. v. " Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892), pp. 105 f.; G. N. 
Munch, Die Zara'ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Geschichte des Aussatz, 
in Dermatologische Studien, by G. Unna (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen 
Religionsgeschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," "Tabu," 
"Totemismus;" H. Schurtz, Die Speiseverbote (1893); A. Einsler, " Beobachtungen 
liber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina- Vereins, Vol. 
XVI (1893), Heft 4 ; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archaologie (1894), Vol. I, 
pp. 116 ff.; II, pp. 275-99 ; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archaologie (1894), PP« 152, 297, 
478-89; DiLLMANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. 
"Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, " Bemerkungen liber den jetzigen Stand der 
Lepraforschungen," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina- Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), 
pp. 41-4; A. Wiener, Die judischen Speisegesetze (1895); A. Sack, Was ist die Zaraath 
der hebrdischen Bibel? (Virchow's Archiv filr path. Anatomie und Physiologie, Band 
144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung , 1896, No. I, col. 
10; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896), 
see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen 
Religion (1897), pp. 24 f., 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und 
Seelenkult im alien Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. Cohn, Die Vorschrift betreffs 
die Zar'ath nach dem Kitab al Kafi (1898); D. H. Muller, Siidarabische Altertiimer im 
kunsthistorischen Museum zu Wien (1899); J- Pikler and F. Somlo, Der Ursprung 
des Totemismus (1899); J. C. Matthes, " De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude 
Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy, 
Revue semitique, Vol. VII (1899), pp. 267 ff.; Gruneisen, Ahnenkullus und Urre- 
ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Medizin im Alien Testament (1901). 

See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim, 
Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. 11-15, especially those 
of Dillmann (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and 
White {Polychrome Bible, 1898). 

§ 135. Supplementary Topics. 

1. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the 
Psalter: 73:1,13; 19:9,12; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9; 
and summarize their teachings. 

2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and 
Proverbs: Job 11 : 4; 33 : 9 ; 17:9; *5 :I 4 ^-', 25 14; 9 ' 3° "> 37 : 21; 
36: 14 ; Prov. 14:4; 16:2; 20 :g ; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize 
their teachings. 

3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the 
Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : 1 Mace. 1 :37, 
46 ff., 54, 62 f.; 2 : 12; 3: 51; 4:38, 43 f., 48 f., 54; 13:47 f -; 2 Mace. 
1 : 18, 33, 36 ; 2:8, 16, 19; 3:12; 4 : 14; 5 : 27 ; 6 : 2, 5, 7 £., 18 ff.; 
7 : 1 ff.; 10: 3, 5; 11 : 24; 12 : 40 ; 13:8; 14:36- 

4. What, in general,- is the attitude of New Testament writers 
toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29 

of the principal allusions: Matt. 8:2 f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43; 
23 : 25-27; Mark 1 : 23, 26 f., 40-44; 3 :I ^3°; 5 : 2 > 8, 13; 6:7; 
7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:18; 7:22; 8:29; 4 : 33, 36; 

9 : 42; 11 : 24, 39, 41 ; 17 : 14, 17 ; John 15:3; Acts 5 : 16; 8:7; 

10 : 14 f., 28; n:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:14; 
2 Cor. 6: 17 ; 7:1; 12:21 ; Gal. 5 : 19 ; Eph. 4 : 19 ; 5 : 3, 5, 26 ; 
Col. 3:551 Thess. 2:3; 4:7; Heb. 9:13; James 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2:10; 
1 John 1 : 7, 9? 

5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., TZJrlp , 
iVltp, 121, 1\1 , and " unclean," viz., $fiQ ; ;/jrO?iF), ypTIJ, yi|p'i f 
etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian 
and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and 
their exact significance in Hebrew literature. 

See especially BAUDISSIN, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II, 
pp. 1-40 ; G. A. Simcox, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica; Zim- 
MERN, Beitrdge zur Assy riologie, Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52; 
and the various lexicons. 

6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with 
clean and unclean and those connected with the ban^=^T\T\. How 
may these be most satisfactorily explained ? 

See § 146, and cf. W. H. Bennett, article " Ban," Encyclopedia Biblica. 

7. Study the phenomena similar to the Hebrew " clean and unclean " 
found in other Semitic nations, e. g., the prohibition among the Syrians 
against eating swine ; the putting off of ordinary everyday garments 
while engaged in sacred acts at Mecca and other ancient Arabic sanc- 
tuaries ; the Arabian custom and method of removing the impurity of 
widowhood ; the impurity of menstruation, which is recognized by all 
Semites; and the many parallels found in Egyptian customs and wor- 
ship. What is the common basis of all these customs ? 

See especially W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 441-56 ; W. Max 
Muller, article "Egypt," §19, Encyclopedia Biblica; Frazer, articles "Taboo" 
and "Totemism," Encyclopedia Britannica. 

8. Consider the possible bases of classification of the clean and 
unclean animals, birds, fish, etc. Is the hygienic motive satisfactory ? 
Is the idea that certain things are prohibited because of an instinctive 
feeling of abhorrence for them applicable to all cases ? Does the pro- 
hibition of certain things have any connection with their sacrificial or 
non-sacrificial character? Can certain cases be explained as due to a 
belief that the animals in question were inhabited by demons? Can 



130 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

any clearly marked line of demarcation be drawn between clean and 

unclean beasts, etc.? Is a combination of motives probable ? 

See especially Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 164 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the 
Jewish Church, pp. 365 f . and note ; G. A. Simcox, article " Clean and Unclean," 
Encyclopedia Biblica; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. I, pp. 
116-19. 

9. Study the idea of "holiness " carefully in the light of the teach- 
ing concerning " clean and unclean." Was it thought of originally 
as a relation sustained to the deity, or as an inherent quality ? What 
is the history of the conception from this point of view ? 

10. Consider the close relationship of the idea of "clean and 
unclean " to the idea of God, and the mutual influence of the two 
ideas. Note that in the earliest times everything thought to be asso- 
ciated with the deity was regarded as unclean, and that in the later 
period the exalted idea of God's holiness was expressed concretely by 
a wide extension of the circle of " uncleanness." Trace the parallel 
development of these two conceptions through the course of Israel's 
history. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER AND RELATED FORMS OF 
WORSHIP, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. 

§ 136. With prayer ; offered at times to secure deliverance from 
trouble or danger, at other times to obtain the presence of the deity 
and his guidance, there may be associated, for purposes of classifica- 
tion, (1) the vow, which was a promise made to the deity in case of the 
granting of a request; (2) blessings and curses, which were prayers for 
good or evil to one's friends or enemies; (3) the ban or sentence to 
destruction, which was a formal curse or anathema; (4) the oath, 
which was an invocation of the deity, or a solemn statement in the 
name of the deity. The following may also be regarded as indirectly 
connected with prayer, viz.: (5) fasting, a means of making impression 
upon the deity, and thus securing favor; (6) consultation through 
oracles, Urim and Thummim, the ephod, and the lot, which were 
various means of ascertaining the divine will ; (7) practice in connec- 
tion with sorcery, or witchcraft, or magic, or divination, all of which 
was, likewise, effort to communicate with the spirit or deity and to 
secure knowledge of the divine will ; (8) mourning customs, many of 
which had their origin in the superstition that the departed spirit had 
power for evil or good over those who were living, a power to be pro- 
pitiated or averted by certain acts ; (9) circumcision, which was an act 
of dedication to the deity. 

It might be said that every act of worship was really prayer; that 
is, approach to the deity. Sacrifice, for example, was acted prayer. 

§137. Prayer. 

1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 1 

(a) Divine mercy and aid are sought through prayer. 

Gen. 18 : 22-33 ; 19 : 18-22 ; 20 : 7, 17(E); 25': 21; 30:6, 17(E), 22 ; 
32:9-12; 35: 3(E); Exod. 3 : 7, 9 ; 5 : 22 f.; 8:8, 12, 29 ff.; 9:28 fif.; 
10:17 ft.; 14:10, 15(E); 15 : 25 ; 17 : 4, 8-1 5(E); 32:11-14; 32:30-32 
(E); Numb. 1 1 : 1-3 (E), 10-15,18; I2:I3(E); I4:i3-I9(E); 21:7 
(E); 23: 10(E); Josh. 7:6-9; 10:12-14; 24: 7(E); Judg. 10:10, 14 f.; 
15 : 18; 16:28; 1 Sam. 7:8 f.; 15:11; 2 Sam. 15:31; 24 :io, 17; 2 Kings 
4:33; 6:17-20; 19:1,4,14-20. 

'All the references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). 

131 



132 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Study different typical cases of prayer for mercy and aid, and con- 
sider (1) the persons who are represented as praying; (2) the nature 
of the petitions offered, c. g., requests for healing, for children, for 
relief from frogs, hail, etc., for rescue from Pharaoh, for deliverance 
of Israel from immediate destruction after sin has been committed ; 
(3) the character of the prayers — simple, informal, naive; (4) the 
basis on which request is made; (5) the elements of prayer which 
seem to be lacking in these cases ; (6) the indications of a primitive 
stage of religious development; (7) the typical and fundamental ele- 
ments of prayer which are involved. 

{b) Divine presence and guidance are sought through prayer. 

Gen. 24 : 12-14 ; Exod. 33 : 7-1 i(E); 34 : 9 ; Numb. 10 : 35 f.; 1 Sam. 
8:6, 18,21; 12:17 f.; 2 Sam. 7 : 1 8-29 ; 1 Kings 3 : 6-9 ; 1 8 : 24-40 ; 
2 Kings 19:2-7, 15-19. 

Study, from the same points of view, another class of prayers, in 
which request is made for the presence of the divine spirit and for its 
guidance. 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 2 

Deut. 9:18-20,25-29; 10:10; 26:15; 2 Kings 22:19; Jer. 3:21; 
10 : 23-25 ; 14 : 7-9, 19-22 515: 15-18 ; 18 : 19-23 ; 20 : 12 ; 42 : 1-6; 
Judg. 3:9, 15 ; 4:3; 6:6; 2 Kings 20:3; 1 Kings 8:22-61. 

Consider (1) the circumstances attending Moses' prayers for the 
people, his fear of Jehovah, the ground of intercession, the element of 
confession, the na'ive appeal to the estimate which strangers may make 
of Jehovah's ability, or of his purpose ; (2) the reasons given by the 
prophetess Huldah for Jehovah's favorable answer to Josiah, viz., 
humility, supplication ; (3) the spirit of dependence seen in Jeremiah's 
prayer (10:23-25), and its request; (4) Jeremiah's confession and 
passionate appeal (14 : 7-9, 19-22); (5) Jeremiah's personal complaints 
(15 : 15-18; 18 : 19-23 ; 20 : 12); (6) the request of the people that Jere- 
miah would pray for them, and his consent (Jer. 42 : 1-6); (7) the 
crying of Israel to Jehovah in their distress ; (8) the basis of Heze- 
kiah's appeal for preservation from death (2 Kings 20 : 3); (9) Solomon's 
prayer (1 Kings 8 : 20-53) at the dedication of the temple (as expanded 
and presented by the Deuteronomic editor) — its form, its contents, its 
spirit, its presuppositions. 

2 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 33 

3. The later period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 3 

Gen. 17: 18; Exod. 2 : 23 f . ; 6:5; Numb. 1 6 : 20-24 ; Judg. 20:18, 
23 ; 21:2 f. ; Ezra 8 : 21 ff.; 9 :5 — 10 : 1 ; Neh. 1 : 4-1 1 ; 2:4; 4 : 4 f . 
4:9; 5:19; 6:9, 14; 9 : 5-38 ; 13: 14, 22, 30; Isa. 63: 15—64: 12. 

Consider (i) that an ejaculation (Gen. 17:18), the cry under 
oppression, is really prayer ; (2) the form and thought of the prayer 
ascribed to the congregation (Numb. 16 : 20-24) 5 (3) the various prayers 
recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, noting the form, the content, the 
spirit, the entirely different tone as compared with those of preceding 
periods ; (4) the exact particulars in which this difference of tone 
consists. 

§138. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement, covering (i) 
the general content of scriptural prayers ; (2) the peculiarities of form ; 
(3) the essential elements which make up such prayers; (4) any differ- 
ences which appear as characterizing the prayers of different periods; 
(5) the place of prayer in worship ; (6) the usage of prayer (a) in the 
Psalms,* {b) in the wisdom literature, 5 (c) in the apocryphal books, 6 {d) 
in the New Testament, 7 (e) among Assyro-Babylonians, Egyptians, etc. 8 

§ 139. Literature to be Consulted. 

Alfred Barry, article " Prayer," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 
2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), see Index, s.v. 
"Prayer," etc.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1869, 5th ed. 1896, transl. 
1892), Vol. I, pp. 371 f.; H. Fox Talbot, "A Prayer and a Vision," Transac- 
tions of the Society of Biblical Arc hceology, Vol. I (1872), pp. 346 fL, and Records of the 
Past, Vol. VII (1876), pp. 65 ff.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (187 4), see Index, 
s. v. " Prayer," " Oracles ; " H. Fox Talbot, "Assyrian Sacred Poetry," Records of the 
Past, Vol. Ill (1874), pp. 131-8 ; A. H. Sayce, " Fragment of an Assyrian Prayer after 
a Bad Dream," Records of the Past, Vol. IX (1877), pp. 149-52; B. T. A. Evetts, 
"An Assyrian Religious Text," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. 
X(i888), pp. 478 f.; D. G. Lyon, "Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Prayers," Pro- 
ceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888, pp. xciii, xciv ; S. A. Strong, "A 
Prayer of Assurbanipal," Records of the Past, new series, Vol. VI (1892), pp. 102-6 ; 
Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), pp. 505 f.; J. A. Craig, 
"Prayer of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), pp. 75-87 ; 
Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer ; " J. L. Nevius, Demon 
Possession and Allied Themes (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer," etc.; JASTROW, Religion 

3 All the references to the Hexateuch are from the P document. 

4 See, e. g., Pss. 5 ; 12 ; 51 ; 55 ; 69. 

SSee, e. g.,]oh 22 :27; 33:26; 41 : 3; 42:8, 10; Prov. 15 :8; 28:9. 

6 See, e. g., 1 Mace. 3:44-54; 4:10, 30-34, 38-40; 5 = 31-34; 2 Mace. 1:5 f., 8. 
23-30; 13:10-12; 14:33-36; 15:21-24; Ecclus. 18:23; chap. 51. 
i Matt. 6 : 9 ff.; 17:21; 21:13, 22 ; 23 : 14 ; John, chap. 17. 
8 See literature cited in § 139. 



134 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. " Prayers," etc.; T. K. Cheyne, 
Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898), p. 25 1; Duff, Old Testament Theology, 
Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Prayer, etc.; " Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews 
(1901), pp. 215 f. 

Gass, article " Gebet," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Stade, 
Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 487 ff.; Riehm's Handworterbuch des 
biblischen Alterthums (2d ed. 1893 x 0> Vol. I, pp. 484 ff.; J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische 
Gebete an den Sonnengott fur Slaat und kbnigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons 
und Assurbanipals, 2 vols. (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestatnentlichen Religions- 
geschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2< ^ e &- J 899), see Index, s. v. " Gebet ; " Benzinger, Hebrti- 
ische Archdologie (1894), pp. 462 ff.; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, 
Vol. II (1894), pp. 259 ff.; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie 
(1895), pp. 184,481; Marti, Geschichte der israelilischen Religion (1897), see Index, 
s. v. "Gebet," etc.; F. Buhl, article "Gebet im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie 
fur prot. Theologie und Kirche, Vol. VI (1899). 

§ 140. The Vow. 

1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions. 

Gen. 14 :2i ff.; 28:2off. (E); 31 : 13(E); Judg. 1 1 : 29 ff., 39 ; 13 : 4 f., 
7,14; 1 Sam. 1:11,21; 2 Sam. 15 : 7 f . ; Numb. 21:1-3 (J) ; Isa. 
19 : 21, 25. 

Examine the narratives which record the vows of Abraham, Jacob, 
Jephthah, the Nazirite, Hannah, Absalom, Israel in connection with 
Arad, as typical cases of vows, and note in each case (1) the implica- 
tion of dependence upon and recognition of the power of the deity; 
(2) the motive actuating the individual to make the vow; (3) the form 
of expression employed. 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 
Deut. 12:6, ii, 17, 26 ; 23 : 18, 22 1; Nah. 2:1; Isa. 44 : 25 ; Jer. 44: 25. 

Examine the references to vows and note (1) the characteristics of 
each case presented ; (2) the close association of the vow with the free- 
will offering; (3) the prohibition of the use of the harlot's hire; (4) 
the obligation to pay a vow once made ; (5) the making of a vow, 
wholly voluntary; (6) the prophetic point of view. 

3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 9 

Numb. 6:1-21; 15:3,8; 29:39; 30:1-16; Mai. 1:14; Jon. 1:16; 
2:10; Lev. 7 : 16 ; 27 : 2, 8 ; 22 : 18, 21, 23 ; 23 : 38. 

Examine the references cited and note (1) the special cases cited; 
(2) the increase in complexity of arrangement ; (3) the details of the 
law of the Nazirite ; (4) the circumstances under which the vow of a 

9 References in bold-face type are from the P document. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 35 

woman is obligatory or otherwise ; (5) the distinction made between 
the vow and the free-will offering. 

§ 141. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the vow, which 
will take up (1) the religious and psychological basis of the usage; (2) 
the various kinds of motives which are seen to have exerted influence ; 
{3) the words employed and their significance; (4) the relationship of 
the vow to the free-will offering; (5) the relation to the oath; (6) the 
modifications in usage which come in later times; (7) the difference 
in principle between vows- of devotion and vows of abstinence; (8) the 
place of the Nazirite order 10 in Old Testament history; (9) the making 
of vows among other ancient peoples;" (10) the attitude of the 
prophets; (11) the representations in the Psalms; 12 (12) the representa- 
tions in wisdom literature; 13 (13) the representations in apocryphal 
literature; 14 (14) the representations in the New Testament ; 15 (15) the 
relation to prayer and sacrifice. 

§ 142. Literature to be Consulted. 

H. W. Phillott, article " Vows," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, 
op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 191 f., 371 f.; W. R. Smith, articles "Nazarite" and "Vow," 
Encydopcedia Britannica (1875) ; Idem, Rel. of Sem., see Index, s. v. "Vows," "Naza- 
rite," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74; G. F. Moore, Judges ("International Criti- 
cal Commentary," 1895), PP- 2 3 2 » 2 79> 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and 
Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), PP- l S 2 r -; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray, 
"The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton, 
article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III. 

Vilmar, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Naziraergeliibdes," Theologische 
Sludien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; Schrader, article "Geliibde," Schenkel's 
Bibel-Lexikon; Dillmann, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article 
" Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie (2d ed.); Grill, " Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des 
Nasiraergelubdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 645 ff.; Maybaum, Die 
Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums (1883) pp. 147-53; RiEHM, Hand- 
ivorterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" Goldziher, Muhammedanische 
Sludien, Vol. I (1888), pp. 23 f.; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;" 
Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann," 
"Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl, 
article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. VI. 

10 See article "Nazirite" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III. 

11 See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. 
Ill, p. 117; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f. 

X2 See, e. g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56=12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11; 
116:14, 18; 132 : 2. 

x 3See, e. g., Eccl. 5 : 4 f.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7 : 14 ; 20 : 25 ; 31 : 2. 

14 See, e. g., 2 Mace. 3 : 35 ; 9 : 13 ff.; Ecclus. 18 :22. 

x 5See, e. g., Acts 18 : 18; 21 : 23 f. 



I36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

§ 143. Blessings and Cursings. 

1. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions. 16 

Gen. 3 : 14, 17; 4 : 11; 9:25 f.; 12 : 3; 27 : 27-29, 35 (E), 39 f. (E); 
48: 15 f.; 49: 1-27; Exod. 12:32; 21 117(E) ; x * 23 : 21 (E), 25-31 (E); 
Numb. 22 :6 ; 24 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 20 ; 14 : 24, 28; 17 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f.; 
19: 39; Deut. 33:1-29 (E); Judg. 9:57; 21 : 18. 

Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol- 
lows : (1) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres- 
sion used, e.g., Judg. 21:18; 1 Sam. 2:20; Deut., chap. 33; (3) 
important cases of blessings or cursings, e. g., (a) Jacob's last words 
(Gen., chap. 49), (J?) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), (c) David's curse 
on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element 
in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation, 
e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22 : 6), by Goliath (1 Sam. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con- 
nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in 
connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23 : 21, 25-31). 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 18 

Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28 ; Deut. 11:26-30; 27:11-26; 28:1-68; 29:19-21; 
30 : 1, 7, 19 ; Josh. 8:34; Jer. 29:18; Ezek. 34:26; 1 Kings 1 8 : 1 4 f ., 
55 f.; cf.Fs. 68:1-3. 

Make a similar classification of the material coming from the 
middle period, noting as cases of special interest (1) the arrangement 
for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and 
Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the 
curses (Josh. 8 134); (3) the old royal form of blessing (1 Kings 8 : 14 f., 
55 f.); (4) deform of national blessing (cf.'Ys. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic 
use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 : 26); (6) the blessings 
and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code 
(Deut. 28:3-14, 15-68). 

3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 19 

Gen. 28:3 f.; Lev. 9:22; 25:21; chap. 26 ; Numb. 5:12-31; 6:22-26; 

Neh. 10 :29 ; 13:2; 2 Chron. 34 :24 ; Isa. 24 : 6 ; Zech. 5:3; Mai. 2:2; 
3:9; Pss. 1 09 ; 37 : 36 ; Prov. 26 : 2 ; Dan. 9:11. 

Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of 

16 All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). 
x ? This reference is from the Covenant Code. 

18 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 

19 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 37 

special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 13 f.); (2) the 
priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6 122-26); (3) the forms of doxology 
used in later worship (cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses 
announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12, 
16-45); (5) tne thought even in later times that "it was worth while to 
curse a bad man" (cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the 
good might be blessed (cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were 
of no avail (cf. Prov. 2 5 12). 

§144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and 
cursings, including the following points: (1) the words translated 
blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped 
formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under- 
lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per- 
son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery (cf. the 
curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings 
— were they cursings as well as blessings? (7) the threefold classifica- 
tion : (a) one nation by another, (b) one individual by another, (c) as 
attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison 
of the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with 
the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code ; 
(9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the 
modifications which are made; (co) a comparison of the New Testa- 
ment representations on this subject 20 — are blessings and curses found 
in the speeches of Jesus ? if so, how are they to be understood? (11) 
this usage among the Arabians; 21 (12) this usage among the Assyri- 
ans; 22 (13) the relation of this usage to prayer. 

§ 145. Literature to be Consulted. 

Ewald, op. cit., pp. 76-9; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs, 
Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 1 1 5-20; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in 
Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53, 263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 164; L. W. King, 
Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (1896); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dic- 
tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. Cheyne, 
article "Blessings and Cursings," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); Henry Hayman, " The 
Blessing of Moses: Its Genesis and Structure," American Journal of Semitic Lan- 
guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106. 

20 See, e. g., Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14 : 19 ; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10 : 16 ; Luke 2 : 28, 34 ; 9:16; 
24:5of.; Acts 3: 26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12 : 14 ; Gal. 3 : 13 ; Mark 7: 10; I.I : 2i; 
Matt. 15:4; 25 141. 

21 Cf. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien. 

22 Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim. 



I38 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

Merx, articles " Fluch " and " Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II 
(1869); Schenkel, article "Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Burger, article 
" Segen, Segnung," Realencyklopddie, 2d ed., Vol. XIV (1884); Hiehm, article 
"Fluch," Handworterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 126; 
Schwally, " Miscellen," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI 
(1891), pp. 170 ff.; Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit., 
p. 146 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 91, 116. 

§146. The Ban. 

1. The early period. 

Exod. 22:19; (E); 23 Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8: 26(E); Judg. 1:17; 
21:11; 1 Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20. 

2. The middle period. 24 

Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; n mi f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa. 
43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; 13:17!; 20:17; Jer. 25:9; 
50:21, 26; 51:3. 

3. The late period. 23 

Isa. 34:2,5; Mai. 4:6; Lev. 27 : 21, 28 f. ; Numb. 18:14; Isa. 11:15 ; 
Zech. 14:11; 1 Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra 10:8; Dan. 
11:44. 

Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and. classify the 
material thus gathered as follows : (1) words used to mean ban or 
destruction, and their significance ; (2) classes of persons or objects sub- 
ject to ban, e. g., (a) idols, (b) individuals regarded as enemies of the 
nation, (c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), (d) 
individuals personally objectionable, (e) metals; (3) the regulations at 
various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made 
from period to period, e. g., Josh. 6 : 24 ; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29. 

§ 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking 
up (1) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship (a) to the vow, (b) to 
the idea of clean and unclean, (c) to taboo ; (3) a classification of per- 
sons or things liable to the ban; (4) the changes which came in later 
times; (5) the attitude of the prophets; (6) the non-appearance of the 
term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature; (7) the New Testa- 
ment development of the idea (cf. 1 Cor. 16 : 22); (8) the place of the 
idea in other Semitic nations (cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria). 26 

2 3 This reference is from the Covenant Code. 

24 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of 
Deuteronomy. 

2 5 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 

26 Cf. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; von Tornauw, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen- 
landischen Gesellschaft,No\. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff.; W. R. Smith, Ret. ofSem., Index, s. v. 
" Ban; " Stade, Gesch., Vol. I, pp. 490 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39 

§ 148. Literature to be Consulted. 

Ewald, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R. 
Smith, Rel. of ' Sem., pp. 150,371, 453 ; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the 
Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff.; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments 
(1895-1901), § 550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I; W. 
H. Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I; Day, op. cit., pp 180, 212 f. 

Merx, article "Bann," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexihon, Vol. I (1869); Weber, Die 
Lehren des Talmud (1880), pp. 138 ff.; VON Tornauw, Zeitschrift der Deulschen Mor- 
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ft.; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I 
(1887), p. 490 ; Smend, op. cit., pp. 21, 39, 147 f., 288 ; Nowack, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 
371 f.; II, pp. 266-9 ; BeNzinger, op. cit., p. 363 ; Dillmann, op. cit., pp. 45, 126, 
149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896), 
pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898). 

§ 149. Oaths. 

1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 27 
Gen. 14 :22 ; 15 : 8-1 1 , 17 f.; 21 122-24 (E); 22 : 15 (JE); 24 : 1-3, 27; 
25 : 33(E); 26:3 (JE), 26-31 ; 31: 53(E); 42: 15(E); 47:29; 50:25 
(E); Exod. 13 :«I9(E); Josh. 2 : 12-14, 20 ; 6 : 26 ; Judg. 21:1; 1 Sam. 
14:24-30, 39, 44 f.; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3 : gf.; 19:23; 
21 : 1 f., 7 ;,i Kings 1 : 13, 17, 30, 51 f.; 2 :23f., 36-46. 

Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each 
case, (1) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man, 
or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example, 
accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the 
thigh, by stretching upward the hand ; (3) the penalty expected or 
prescribed in case of the violation of the oath ; (4) any specially inter- 
esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g., Abraham's 
oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15 : 10), the 
treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies 
(Josh. 2 : 12-14), Saul's adjuration (1 Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's 
oath concerning Solomon (1 \Kings 1:13), Shimei and Solomon 
(1 Kings 2 : 42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20: 7, thou shalt not 
take the name of Jehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro- 
fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)? 

2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 

Jer. 4:2; 22 : 5 ; 31 : 33 ' ; 34 : 18 f.; 38 : 16 ; Ezek. 17 : 16-19 ; Deut. 
19: i 9 ff. 28 

Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special 
interest in connection with (1) false swearing (Deut. 19 : 19 ff.); (2) 

2 7 All references to the Hexateuch are from I, except those marked otherwise, and 
Gen. 14 :22, which is from an independent source. 

28 This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. 



140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34 : 18 f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer. 
31 : 33); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38:16); (5) breaking the covenant 
(Ezek. 17 : 16-19). 

3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions. 29 

Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, 19 f.; Judg. 21:5,7; Zech. 

5 : 1 ff.; Ezra 10:5; Neh. 10 : 29 ; Dan. 12:7. 

Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest 
in connection with (1) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse 
(Numb. 5:11 ff .) ; (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the 
Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f. ); (4) the oath concern- 
ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing 
(Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7). 

§150. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement upon the use of 
the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points : (1) the 
significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under 
the influence of seven things; " (2) the ritual; (3) .the various forms of 
the oath ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ; 
(5) its sociological basis ; (6) the significance of an oath made by the 
deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes 
in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti- 
tude of the prophets ; 3 ° (10) the representations concerning swearing 
in the wisdom literature; 31 (11) the representations in the apocryphal 
literature; 32 (12) the attitude of the New Testament; 33 (13) the use 
of the oath among the Arabs; 34 (14) its use among the Assyrians and 
Babylonians; (15) its relation to prayer. 35 

§151. Literature to be Consulted. 

H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 2d 
ed. 1893); Ewald, op. eit., see Index, s. v. " Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. II, 
p. 70 ; E. B. Tylor, article "Oath," Encyc. Brit. (1875); W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., pp. 
180 ff., 480 ; F. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment," Journal of Biblical Literature. 

2 9 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 
3° See, e. g., Hos. 4:2, 15 ; 10: 4 ; Amos 4:2; 6:8; 8 : 7, 14 ; Isa. 14 124 ; 19: 18; 
45 : 23 ; 48 : I ; 54 : 9 ; 62 : 8 ; 65 : 16 ; Ezek. 21 : 23. 

3 x See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2. 

3 2 See, e. g., 1 Mace. 6 : 61 f.; 7 : 18, 35 ; 2 Mace. 14 : 33-36 ; Ecclus. 44 : 21. 

33 See, e. g., Matt. 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:16!!.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73; 
Acts 2 : 30 ; 23 : 21 ; Jas. 5 : 12. 

34 Cf. Wellhausen, Resie arab. Heidenlhums, p. 122; W. R. Smith, Religion 
of the Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath." 

33 Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy , pp. 94 f. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I 

Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88; Duff, op. cit., Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. v. "Oath;" 
G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op. 
cit., p. 184. 

Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht (1846), pp. 615 ££.; Bruch, article " Eid," 
Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); RlEHM, article "Eid," Handworterbuch; 
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 122 ; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Schwur ; " Nowack, 
op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Eid ; " Frey, Tod, 
Seelenglaube und Seelenkult (1898), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den 
Hebraern," Realencyklopadie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898). 

§ 152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the 
Divine Mercy and Help. 

1. The early period. 

Exod. 34: 28 (J), cf. 24: 18(E); 1 Sam. 7:5 £.; 31:13; 2 Sam. 
1 : 12; 3:35; 12 : 16-23; ! Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27. 

2. The middle period. 

Deut. 8:3; 9:9, 18-20, 25-29 ; 10 : 10 ; Jer. 14:12; 36 : 6, 9. 

3. The late period. 

Judg. 18: 17(F); 20:26 ff.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11; 
9 : 1, 31 ; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16; Zech 7 : 1-7, 18-23 ; 8: 19; Isa. 58 13 ff.; 
1 Chron. 10:12; 2 Chron. 20:3; Joel 1:14; 2:12,15; Jon. 3:5; 
Dan. 9:3; Lev. 1 6 : 29, 3 1 , 36 

§153. Questions and Suggestions. 

Consider (1) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for 
fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on 
Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act, 
the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (1 Kings 19 : 8 ff.) as a 
preparation for communion with God; (4) the fasting of the men of 
Jabesh for Saul (1 Sam. 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. 1 : 12), 
that is, in mourning for the dead (cf. 2 Sam. 3 : 35); and determine 
the original meaning of the act, i. e., an explanation with which these 
various cases may be connected; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or 
in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? 37 

Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (1) the motive 
or purpose in each case, e. g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra ; (2) 
whether they were private or public (cf., in earlier and middle periods, 1 
Kings 21 : 9 ff.; Isa. 1 : 13^ (Sept.); Jer. 36 : 6 ff.; and, in later period, 
Joel 1 : 13 f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes 
spiritualized (cf. Ahab's case, 1 Kings 21:29); (4) the connection 
between fasting and penitence (cf. 1 Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the 

3 6 This reference is from the Priestly Code. 

37 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 434. 



142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting, 
and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came 
in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious 
work," and the prophets' attitude toward this(Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; Zech. 7 : 5 f.). 

Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public 
fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (1) in the 
fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth 
month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52:12 f.); (3) in 
the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1 ff.); (4) in the 
tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 : 4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7, 
18-23); (5) the Day of Atonement (Lev., chap. 16), noting [a) that this 
is the only fast required by the laws, (b) that there is no allusion to its 
observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, (<r) 
the purpose of the day, (ct) its relation to the religious thought and spirit 
of the later times ; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman. 

Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (1) in the Psalms; 3 * 
(2) in the apocryphal literature; 39 (3) in the New Testament; 40 (4) 
among other Semitic nations. 41 

§ 154. Literature to be Consulted. 

Samuel Clark, article "Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible 
(1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431; 
Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1st ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, trans]. 1883), §§ 140 f.; 
Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services (1874), PP- 263-88; Wellhau- 
SEN, Prolegomena, pp. 110-12; J. S. Black, article "Fasting," Encyclopedia Bri- 
tannica, Vol. IX (1879); KUENEN, The Hexaleuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86, 
312; W. R.Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 509 f.; 
C. J. Ball, article "Fasting and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893) ; 
H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), PP- 186, 286 ff., 383; 
McCurdy, op. cit., §§ 1 1 16, 1 1 18, 1346 n.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article 
"Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article 
"Feasts and Fasts," ibid., Vol. I (1898), pp. 862 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-11 ; M. 
Jastrow, op. cit., p. 688 ; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of," 
Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," Ency- 
clopcedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901) ; Ottley, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman 
Period (1901), pp. 305 f. 

3 8 See, e. g., Pss. 35:13; 69 : 10 ; 109 : 24. 

39 See, e. g., 1 Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; Ecclus. 34 : 26. 

40 See, e.g., Matt. 4:2; 6 : 16 ff.; 9:14^; 17:21; Mark 2: 18 ff.; 9:29; Luke 
2 : 37 ; 5 : 33 #•; 18 : 12 ; Acts 10 : 30 ; 13 : 2 f.; 14 : 23 ; 27 : 9, 33 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 5 ; 2 Cor. 
6:5; 11:27. 

41 See, e. g., the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Jastrow,. 
and Black cited in § 154. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 43 

Holtzmann, article "Fasten," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); 
Orelli, article " Versohnungsfest," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1875); H. Oort, 
"De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. X (1876), pp. 142-65; D. 
Hoffmann, Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. 1 ff.; Delitzsch, Zeitschrift filr kirchliche 
Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83; J. Derenbourg, 
"Essai de restitution de l'ancienne redaction de Massechet Kippourim," Revue des 
itudes juives, No. 1 1 (1883), pp. 41-80 ; Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, 
sein Ursprung und seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift filr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 
Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 178-84; Kuenen, Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XVII (1883), pp. 
207-12; Riehm, article "Fasten," Handworterbuch, Vol. I (1884); Delitzsch, 
article "Versohnungstag," Riehm's Handworterbuch, Vol. II (1884); Stade, Ge- 
schichte, Vol. II (1888), pp. 182, 258 ff.; Benzinger, " Das Gesetz iiber den grossen 
Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift filr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX 
(1889), pp. 65-88; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892), pp. 26 ff.; Smend, 
op. cit., pp. 142, 319, 330 ff., 396; Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 270 ff.; Benzinger, 
op. cit., pp. 165, 464, 477 ; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 184 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 234, 283 f.; 
Buhl, "Fasten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898); Frey, 
Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult im alten Israel (1898), pp. 37, 81-5, 1 17. 

§155. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity through 
Oracles, Urim and Thummim, the Ephod, the Lot. 

1. The early period. 

{a) Oracles. — Gen. 24 : 12-14 (J); 25:22f. (J); Judg. 1 : 1 ; 18 : 5 f.; 1 Sam. 
10 : 22 ; 14 : 19, 37 ; 23 : 2, 4, ioff.; 28 : 6 ; 30 : 71".; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5 : 19, 
23 f.; 16:23; 21: if.; 2 Kings 8 : 7 ff . ; Numb. 24 : 3, 15 ; Isa. 15:1; 
Amos 2:11, 16. 

(b) Urim and Thummim. — 1 Sam. 14 : 4 if.; 28 : 4-6 ; 22 : 10, 13 ; 23 : 2, 4, 
6, 9-12 ; 30 -.7 ; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5 : 19, 23 f.; 21:1 ; Deut. 33 : 8 (E). 

(c) The ephod. — Judg. 8:27a/ 17:5; 18:14,20; 1 Sam. 14:18; 21:9!:.; 
23:6, gff.; 30:7!; Hos. 3:4. 

(d) The lot.— Josh. 16:1 (J); 17 : 14, 17 (J); Judg. 1 : 3 ; 20:9; Isa. 17:14; 
Mic. 2 : 5. 

2. The middle period. 

(a) Oracles. — Mic. 4:6; 5:9; Nah. 2:14; Zeph. 1:2; Ezek. 5 : 1 1 ; 1 1 : 8, 

21 ; Jer. 1:8; 2:3. 
(&) The ephod.— Deut. 2 : 28 ; Judg. 8 : 2jb. 
(c) The lot.— Josh. 18:6,8, 10 (R d ); Isa. 34 : 17 ; Jer. 13 : 25 ; Ezek. 24:6; 

Obad. 11; Nah. 3:10; Deut. 32:9. 

3. The late period. 42 

(a) Oracles. — Joel 2:12; Hag. 1:9; 2:4; Zech. 1:3; 3:9; 10:12; 
12:1; Mai. 1:2; Pss. 36:1; 110:1. 

(b) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21; 
Ezra 2 :63 ; Neh. 7 : 65. 

^References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 



144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(c) The lot. — Lev. 16 : 8-10 ; Numb. 26 : 55 f.; 33 : 54 ; 34 : 13 ; 36 : 2 f.; 
Josh. 14:2; 15:1; 17:1 ; 19 : ! » I0 > r 7. 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 : 4, 5 f., 8, 
10, 40 ; 1 Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16 : 18 ; 24 : 5, 7, 31 ; 25 : 8 f.; 
26 : 13 f.; Neh. 10 : 34 ; 1 1 : 1 ; Esther 3:7; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57:6; Joel 
3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12 : 13. 

§ 156. Questions and Suggestions. 

Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which 
seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles, 
Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of 
each, and consider (1) the various circumstances under which such 
consultation is held; (2) the underlying motive in each case; (3) the 
relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any) 
between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word 
oracle is used ; (6) the different views as to the method of employing 
the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use; 
(8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts. 

Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and 
the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these 
external helps increases or diminishes. 

Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting 
the deity, as they may be referred to in (1) the Psalms, 43 (2) the 
wisdom literature, 44 (3) the apocryphal literature, 45 (4) the New Testa- 
ment ; 46 and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians, 47 
(6) the Assyrians and Babylonians, 48 (7) the ancient Arabs, 49 (8) the 
Greeks and Romans. 50 

§ 157. Literature to be Consulted. 

Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and 
Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L. 
Bevan, article "Ephod," ibid. (1st ed. 1863), revised by J. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893); 
Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Vol. I (1869 f., transi. 1874), pp. 96-100 ; W. M. Ramsay, 

« See, e. g., Pss. 16:5 ; 22: 18; 36:1; no:i; 125:3. 

44 See, e.g., Prov. I : 14; 16:33; 18 : 18 ; 30 : I; 31 : 1. 

45 Cf. Wisdom of Solomon 8 : 8. 

46 See, e. g., Matt. 27:35; Mark 15:24; Luke I : 9 ; 23:34; John 19:24; Acts 
I :26; 7 : 38 ; 8 : 21; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12 ; I Pet. 4 : II. 

47 See, e. g., Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s. v. 
"Oracle, etc." 

48 See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157. 

49 See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in § 157. 

5° See, e. g., Warre CORNISH, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 
s. v. " Sortes." 






LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 45 

article "Oracle," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p. 
130 ; T. G. Pinches, " The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol. 
XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid., Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 129-40 ; S. F. 
Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp. 
252-56; Konig, Religious History of Israel (1885), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of 
Sem., see Index, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel (Camb. 
Bible, 1891), pp. 217 f.; H. E. Dosker, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian 
and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30; S. A. Strong, "On Some Oracles to Esar- 
haddon and Assurbanipal," Beitrdge zur Assy riologie, Band II (1894), PP- 627—45 *> 
J. F. McCurdy, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G. F. Moore, Judges (Inter- 
national Critical Commentary, 1 895), p. 381; Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition 
(1897), pp. 280 ff.; S. R. Driver, article " Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I 
(1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, " The Biblical 
Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40; O. C. 
Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); W. Muss- 
Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Semitic Languages and 
Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle," 
Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. Moore, article " Ephod," Encyclopedia 
Biblica, Vol. II (1901). 

Braun, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und 
Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41; 
G. KLAIBER, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); Kohler, Lehrbuch der 
biblischen Geschichte des Alien Testamentes, Vol. I (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article 
"Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Riehm, Hand- 
worterbuch (1st ed. 1884, 2d ed. by Baethgen 1893 f-)> articles "Ephod" and "Licht 
und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade, 
Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 471 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums, pp. 
126 f., 133, 167, etc.; Baudissin, Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889), 
pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (1891), p. 17 ; Sellin, Beitrdge 
zur israelitischen und judischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), p. 119; Wil- 
helm Lotz, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, Vol. V (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo- 
NACKER, Le sacerdoce levitique (1899), pp. 370 ff. 

§ 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super- 
natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft. 

1. The early period. 51 

{a) Magic and divination. — Gen. 44:5, 15 (J); Exod. 22:17; Numb. 

22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; 1 Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic 3 : 6 f., 11 ; Isa. 2 : 6. 
(0) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 22 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 15 : 23 ; 2 Kings 9 : 22. 

2. The middle period. 52 

(a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9; 
29:8; Ezek. 12:24; 13:7-9, 23; 2i:2iff., 29; 22:28; 2 Kings 
17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic. 5:12. 

5 1 References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 

5 2 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter- 
onomy. 



I46 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3:4; Jer. 
27:9; Isa. 47:9, 12; 57:3. 

3. The late period. 53 

{a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 1 3 : 22 ; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 6, 27; Zech. 

10 : 2. 
(J?) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 7:11; Mai. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ; 

Dan. 2 : 2. 

§159. Questions and Suggestions. 

Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers 
which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate, 
viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (1) the various 
circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under- 
lying motive in each case ; (3) the relative frequency in different 
periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external 
sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they 
may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods; 
(8) the explanation of this attitude ; (9) the relation of all this to 
idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed; 
(11) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance. 

Consider (1) the significance of references in the Psalms; 54 (2) 
in the wisdom literature; 55 (3) in the apocryphal literature ; 5<5 (4) in 
the New Testament. 57 

Consider the use of these methods among (1) the Egyptians ; 58 (2) 
the ancient Arabs; 59 (3) the Assyrians and Babylonians; 60 (4) the 
Greeks and Romans. 61 

§ 160. Literature to be Consulted. 

F. W. Farrar, article "Divination," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ecL 
1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 281 ff., 283 ff.; E. B. Tylor, 
article "Divination," Encyclopcedia Britannica, Vol. VII (1878); Idem, article 

53 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 

54 See, e. g., Ps. 58 : 5. 55 See, e. g., Prov. 16 : 10. 
5 6 See, e. g., Ecclus. 34 :2~7. 

57 See, e. g., Acts 8:9, 11 ; 13:6,8; 16:16; Gal. 5 : 20 ; Rev. 9 : 21 ; 18:23; 
21:8; 22 : 15. 

58 See, e. g., Budge, Egyptian Magic. 

59 See, e. g., W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent., Index, s. v. " Omens," etc.; Wellhausen, 
Reste arab. Heid., pp. 135-64. 

60 See, e. g., Lenormant, Chaldcean Magic; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and 
Sorcery. 

61 See, e. g., E. B. Tylor, article " Magic," Encyc. Brit. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 47 

** Magic," ibid., Vol. XV (1883); W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., see Index, s. v. " Charms," 
"Omens," " Magic," " Witches ; " Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time 
of Jesus Christ, Div. II, Vol. Ill, pp. 151— 5 ; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 
1894), see Index, s. v. " Magic Art," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., pp. 72, 91, 153 ; McCurdy, 
op. cit. (1895-1901), §§ 644, 851 n., 858; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, 
Being " The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand' 1 '' (1896); T. W. Davies, Magic, 
Divination and Demonology (1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Magical 
Texts," "Sorcer, etc.," "Witchcraft;" F. B.Jevons, article "Divination," Hastings' 
Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); O. C. Whitehouse, article "Exorcism," ibid.; T. W. 
Davies, article "Divination," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian 
Magic (1899); Ramsay, The Expositor, July, 1899, p. 22; O. C. Whitehouse, arti- 
cle "Magic," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff, op. cit., Vol. II, see 
Index, s. v. "Divination;" Cheyne, article "Exorcists," Encyc. Bib.,Vo\. II (1901); 
Day, op. cit., pp. 185 f., 220, 222 ; Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901). 

Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie, und magische Heilatten im Talmud 
(1850); P. Scholz, Gotzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alien Hebrdern und den 
benachbarten Volkern (1877); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Pro- 
phetenthums (1883), pp. 7-29; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 503 ff.; Wellhausen, 
Reste arabischen Heidenthums ("Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," III), pp. 126, 135-64, 
215; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Wahrsagung," "Zauberei;" Tallqvist, 
Assyrische Beschwbrungsserie Maqlu (1894); DiLLMANN, op. cit., see Index, s. v. 
" Wahrsager ; " Zimmern, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion (1896, 
1899); Marti, op. cit., p. 45 ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult (1898), pp. 180, 
202 ; Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei; Blau, Das alt-jiidische Zauberwesen. 

§ 161. Supplementary Study on Mourning Customs. 

1. The early period. 

Amos 1 : 16 ; 8:10; Mic. 1:8, 16 ; Isa. 3 : 24 ; 15:2; 22 : 12 ; 
2 Sam. 3:31; 21:10; 1 Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 19: if.; Gen. 
37: 34(E), 35 (J); cf. 1 Kings. 20: 3 if. 

2. The middle period. 

Deut. 14:1!; Jer. 16:6-8; 41:5; 47=5; 49 • 3 ; 48:37; 4:8; 
6:26; Ezek. 24 : 16-17; 29:18; 27:31; 7:18. 

3. The late period. 

Lev. 1 9 : 27 f . ; 21 : 5 ; Joel 1:8; Jon. 3 : 5 ff. ; Ezra 9:3; Dan. 9:3. 

§ 162. Questions and Suggestions. 

Study the references given to mourning customs, and note (1) the 
custom of weeping and its significance, in contrast with the modern 
conception ; (2) the more intense expression of grief, termed wailing; 
(3) the beating of the breast, tearing of the hair, rending of clothes, 
putting on sackcloth, and mutilation of the body, as expressions of 
mourning; (4) the putting away of food to (or for) the dead (Deut. 
26: 14); (5) fasting (cf. 1 Sam. 31 : 13). 

Consider, in connection with these customs, (i) to what extent they 



I48 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

are survivals from the age in which ancestor-worship prevailed ; (2) to 
what extent, therefore, they had their origin in the effort to propitiate 
the spirit of the dead, which was supposed to have power for good or 
evil, rather than in the desire to express grief for the loss that had been 
incurred ; (3) the reasons for forbidding certain of these customs (cf. 
Deut. 14:1; 26:14; Lev. 19:28); (4) changes which seem to have 
come about in the progress of history. 

Consider the representations made concerning mourning customs 
in the Psalms, 62 (2) in the wisdom literature, 63 (3) in the apocryphal 
literature, 64 (4) in the New Testament, 65 (5) among other ancient 
nations. 66 

§ 163. Literature to be Consulted. 

Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859), see Index, s. v. "Manners and 
Customs;" H. W. Phillott, article "Mourning," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 
(1st ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Maspero, Egyptian Archeology (transl. 1887), pp. 108- 
63; W. R. Smith, Bel. of Sem., pp. 322 f., 336, 370, 430; A. P. Bender, "Beliefs, 
Rites, and Customs of the Jews, Connected with Death, Burial, and Resurrection," 
Jewish Quarterly Beview, Vol. VI (1893-94), PP- 317—47, 664-71 ; Vol. VII (1894-95), 
101-18, 259-69 ; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), pp. 306-27; E. A. 
Wallis Budge, The Mummy (2d. ed. 1894); H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental 
Social Life (189 4), pp. 143-208; Menzies, op. cit. (1895), see Index, s. v. "Funeral 
Practices;" Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Dead," etc.; Peritz, "Woman in 
the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1898), pp 
137 f.; T. Nicol, article " Mourning," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; Duff 
op. cit., Vol. II, see Lndex,s. v. " Mourning and Bewailing;" Day, op. cit., pp. 204 fL; 
Wiedemann, The Bealm of the Egyptian Dead. 

Perles, " Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des nachbiblischen Judenthums," Monats- 
schrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Vol. X (1 861), pp. 345-55, 
376-94 ; M. Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu lugentiwnque ritibus (3d ed. 1868) ; Ros- 
koff, article "Klage," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Oort, "De 
doodenvereering bij de Israeliten," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Vol. XV (1 881), pp. 350 ff.; 
Kamphausen, article " Trauer," Riehm's Handwdrterbuch, Vol. II (1884) ; Lehrer, 
article " Trauer bei den Hebraern," Bealencyklopddie, Vol. XV (2d ed. 1885) ; Stade, 
Geschichte, Vol. I, pp. 387 ff.; G. A. Wilken, Ueber das Haaropfer (1886 f.); Well- 
hausen, Beste arab. Heidenthums (1887 j, pp. 159 ff., 178 f.; Goldziher, Muhamme- 
danische Studien (1888), Vol. I, p. 248 ; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892); 
Smend, op. cit., pp. 153 f.; Wellhausen, Israelitische und judische Geschichte (isted. 

62 See, e. g., Pss. 35 : 14 ; 38 : 6 ; 42 : 9 ; 43 : 2 ; 88 : 9. 

6 3 See, e. g., Prov. 29 : 2 ; Job 2:11; 5:11; 20 : 38 ; Eccles. 3 : 4. 

64 See, e. g., Ecclus. 7 : 34 ; 22: nf.; 38 : 1 6 £E. ; 41 : I ff. 

6 sSee, e g\,Matt. 2 : 18; 5:4; 9:15; 11 :i7; 24 130; Mark 16 :io; Luke 6 125 ; 
7:32; I Cor. 5:2; 2 Cor. 7 :7; Jas. 4 19; Rev. 18:8, II. 

66 See especially the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, 
Menzies, Jastrow, and Trumbull cited in § 163. 






LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 49 

1894), p. 143; Nowack, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 187-98; Benzinger, op. cit., pp. 102, 
165 ff., 428 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 37, 40 ff., 116; Frey, 7c*/, Seelenglaube und Seelen- 
kult im alien Israel (1898) ; Bertholet, Die israelitischen Vorstellungen vom Zustand 
nach dem Tode (1899); Krehl, Religion der Araber; F. J. Grundt, Die Trauerge- 
brduche der Hebrder. 

§ 164. Supplementary Study on Circumcision. 

1. The early period. 

Exod. 4:24 ff. (J); Josh. 5:2 f„ 9 (J); Judg. 14:3; I5'- 1 %', 1 Sam. 
14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25 ff.; 31:4; 2 Sam. 1:20; 3:14; Isa. 15:2; 
32:12. 

2. The middle period. 

Deut. 10: 16; 26: 14 ; 30 : 6; Jer. 4:4; 6: 10 ; 9 : 24 ff.; Josh. 5 : 4-8; 
Ezek. 28 : 10 ; 31:18; 32 119, 21, 24-32; 44 : 7, 9; Isa. 52 : 1. 

3. The late period. 67 

Lev. 12 : 3 ; 19 : 23 ff.; 26 141 ; Gen. 17 : 10-14, 23-27 ; 21:4; 34 : 1 4 f., 
17, 22, 24 ; Exod. 6 : 12, 30 ; 12 : 44, 48 ; 1 Chron. 10:4. 

§ 165. Questions and Suggestions. 

Study the references to circumcision, considering (1) the more 
interesting narratives concerning instances of circumcision, e. g., (a) 
Moses' son and Zipporah, (&) the circumcision at Gilgal, (c) the cir- 
cumcision of Abraham's family, of Shechem and his family; (2) the 
characterization of other nations as uncircumcised ; (3) the early 
origin, how shown. 

Consider (1) the explanation of the origin which makes it sanitary, 
i. e., instituted as a preventive of certain diseases ; (2) the explanation 
which connects it with marriage, as thereby promoting fruitfulness ; 
(3) the explanation that makes it a tribal badge, i. <?., a mark of initia- 
tion into full membership in the tribe (which included religious 
privileges), and therefore an act of sacramental communion, an act of 
sacrifice, a dedication. 

Consider (1) the place of circumcision in the early period, viz., of 
young men (^.^^Gen., chap. 34 ; Josh. 5: 2f.; Exod. 4 : 25), and as a tribal 
distinction (cf. Gen., chap. 34; Ezek. 31: 8); (2) its place in the middle 
period : (a) not mentioned in history or in the older laws, not regarded 
as important ; (a) circumcision of heart called for (Jer. 9 : 24, 25), while 
the circumcision of Israelites is placed on the same plane with that of 
Edomites, Ammonites, and other nations; (c) the spiritualization by the 
prophets furnishing the basis for more extended use in the next period ; 

°7 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 



150 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 

(3) its place in the later period : (a) the representations of its origin; 
(£>) the regulations for the performance of the rite; (c) its position as 
one of the two distinctive ordinances of Judaism, the other being the 
sabbath ; (d) its significance as a rite of purification. 

Consider representations concerning circumcision (1) in the apoc- 
ryphal literature j 68 (2) in the New Testament, 69 and the lack of allusion 
to it in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature. (3) Consider the prac- 
tice of circumcision among the Egyptians, Arabs, and other nations. 70 

§ 166. Literature to be Consulted. 

T. T. Perowne, article "Circumcision," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (1st ed. 1863, 
2d ed. 1893); Ewald, op. cit., pp. 89-97; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 192 ff.; II, pp. 
7-70; Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874), Vol. I, pp. 238, 290; 
AsHER, The Jewish Rite of Circumcision (1873); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 
Vol. II (1874), pp. 363 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, article "Circumcision," Encyclopcedia 
Britannica, Vol. V (1877); E. B. Tylor, Early History of Mankind (3d ed. 1878), 
pp. 214-19; Kalisch, Bible Studies, Part II (1878), pp. 4-1 1 ; Wellhausen, Prole- 
gomena, p. 340 ; RENAN, History of the People of Israel, Vol. I (1887, transl. 1894), 
pp. 104-9 ; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 328; Bancroft, Native Races (1890), Vol. 
Ill, see Index; P. C. Remondino, History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to 
the Present (1891); H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (1893), pp. 79,215-24, 
351 f.; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), PP- 3 2 f-> 539; Schechter, 
Studies in Judaism (1896), p. 343; A. H. Sayce, Expository Times, November, 1897; 
I. J. Peritz, "Woman in the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Jozirnal of Biblical Literature, 
Vol. XVII (1898), p. 136; Macalister, article "Circumcision," Hastings' Dictionary, 
Vol. I (1898); Benzinger, article "Circumcision," Encyc.Bib., Vol. I (1899). 

Borheck, 1st die Beschneidung urspriinglich hebrdisch ? (1793); Cohen, Dis- 
sertation sur la circoncision (1816); Autenrieth, Ueber den Ursprung der Beschnei- 
dung (1829); Lubkert, "Der judische eiriG-rraviibs" Theologische Studien tind 
Kritiken, 1835, pp. 657-64; Collin, Die Beschneidung (1842); S. Holdheim, 
Ueber die Beschneidung in religios. Beziehungen ; Bergson, Die Beschneidung 
(1844); Salomon, Die Beschneidung histor. und ??iedizin. dargestellt (1844); Brecher, 
Die Beschneidung (1845); Steinschneider, Ueber die Beschneidung der Araber 
(1845); G. Ebers, Aegypten und die Biicher Moses, VoL I (1868), pp. 278-84 ; Steiner, 
article "Beschneidung," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. I (1869); Auerbach, 
Berith Abraham, oder, der Beschneidungsfeier (2d ed. 1880); Weber, Die Lehren 
des lalmud (1880), p. 373; Ploss, Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der Vblker (2d 
ed. 1882), pp. 360 ff.; Riehm, article "Beschneidung," Handworterbuch (1884); 
Stade, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VI (1886), pp. 132-43; 
Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthu?ns (1st ed. 1887), pp. 154, 168, 215 ; Holzinger, 

68 See, e. g., 1 Mace. 1 : 14, 48, 60 f.; 2 Mace. 6:10. 

69 See, e. g., Luke 1: 59 ; John 7 : 22 f.; Acts 15:5; 16 : 3 ; 21: 21; Rom. 2 : 25 ff.; 
I Cor. 7:18 f.; Gal. 5 : 2 f.; 6:13; Col. 3:11; Phil. 3 : 5. 

70 See especially the references to the works of Tylor, Bancroft, W. R. Smith, 
Wellhausen, Ploss, Ebers, Erman, and Reitzenstein, cited in § 166. 



LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I 5 1 

Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 133, 365, 437; Smend, op. cit., pp. 37 f., 116; 
Nowack, op. cit., pp. 167-71 ; Benzinger, op. cit., pp. 153 ff.; Budde, Zeitschrift fiir 
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIV (1894), p. 250; Glassberg, Die Beschnei- 
dung (1896); Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alien Testament (1896), 
pp. 165, 174; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Frem- 
den (1896), see Index, s. v. " Beschneidung ; " Marti, op. cit., pp. 43, 163 f.; J. 
Jaeger, " Ueber die Beschneidung," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, July, 1898, pp. 479-9 1; 
Zeydner, " Kainszeichen, Keniter und Beschneidung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta- 
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVIII ( 1 898), pp. 120-25; REITZENSTEIN, Zwei religions- 
geschichtlichc Fragen (1901). 



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